Ube  Unfcustrial  Series 

EDITED  BY  G.  E.  CONDRA 


THE    WHEAT    INDUSTRY 


THE  MACMILLAN  COMPANY 

NEW  YORK   •    BOSTON   •    CHICAGO   •    DALLAS 
ATLANTA  •    SAN    FRANCISCO 

MACMILLAN  &  CO.,  LIMITED 

LONDON    •    BOMBAY   •    CALCUTTA 
MELBOURNE 

THE  MACMILLAN  CO.  OF  CANADA,  LTD. 

TORONTO 


mm 

m 


THE 

WHEAT  INDUSTRY 

FOR    USE    IN    SCHOOLS 


BY 

N.   A.    BENGTSON,    A.M. 

AND 

DONEE    GRIFFITH,   A.M. 

DEPARTMENT   OF   GEOGRAPHY   AND   CONSERVATION 
THE   UNIVERSITY   OF   NEBRASKA 


gorfc 
THE    MACMILLAN    COMPANY 

1915 

All  rights  reserved 


COPYRIGHT,  1915, 
Bv  THE  MACMILLAN  COMPANY. 


Set  up  and  electrotyped.     Published  October,  1915. 


Norfoooto 

J.  S.  Gushing  Co.  —  Berwick  &  Smith  Co. 
Norwood,  Mass.,  U.S.A. 


INTRODUCTION 

The  Industrial  Series,  to  which  this  text  belongs,  is 
designed  for  the  purpose  of  making  use  of  industrial 
studies  in  education.  That  the  features  of  industry 
should  be  employed  more  as  a  means  in  education  is 
now  recognized.  The  organization  of  such  data  for 
use  in  schools  is  a  problem,  however,  of  considerable 
magnitude. 

That  the  natural  resources  are  of  fundamental  im- 
portance in  shaping  industrial  development  is  generally 
understood.  It  is  likewise  known  that  the  industries 
based  on  the  resources  have  relations  to  the  life  and 
welfare  of  the  people.  Wheat  is  a  resource  of  wide 
distribution  and  great  importance  in  agriculture,  manu- 
facture, and  commerce.  This  book  seeks  to  make  it 
of  more  use  in  education. 

It  is  believed  that  industrial  subjects  of  this  kind 
are  needed  in  the  schools,  because,  first,  they  afford 
useful  information,  and  second,  they  are  in  line  with 
vocational  training.  Yet  larger  purposes  lie  in  the  fact 
that  they  stimulate  interest,  call  for  action  and  clear 
thinking,  and  thereby  increase  the  efficiency  of  school 
work.  Such  industrial  studies  at  this  time  are  a  part 

359996 


vi  INTRODUCTION 

of  the  regular  work  of  many  schools.  This  text  is 
designed  for  use  in  the  upper  grades  of  elementary 
schools. 

The  authors  of  this  volume,  Professor  N.  A.  Bengt- 
son  and  Miss  Donee  Griffith,  ha've  an  intimate  first- 
hand knowledge  of  the  wheat  industry,  including  all 
its  processes  of  the  farm,  commercial  movements,  and 
manufacture.  They  have  taught  the  subject  in  the 
elementary  school,  normal  school,  and  university. 

The  editor  is  indebted  to  Professor  R.  D.  Scott  and 
Miss  Myrtle  Keegan  for  assistance  in  the  preparation 
of  the  manuscript  for  the  publisher. 

G.   E.   CONDRA,   Editor. 


PREFACE 

"  The  Wheat  Industry  "  is  written  in  response  to  a 
demand  for  a  connected  treatment  of  the  activities  of 
wheat  production.  The  almost  universal  use  of  wheat 
as  a  food  places  it  in  a  position  of  exceptional  interest. 
Its  importance  is  realized,  therefore  people  desire  to 
know  the  story  of  the  processes  leading  to  its  produc- 
tion. Wheat  is  a  product  entering  largely  into  the 
channels  of  trade,  and  so  is  of  great  commercial  inter- 
est. The  great  countries  of  the  world  can  be  studied 
with  advantage  from  the  standpoint  of  wheat.  Thus 
we  emphasize  two  major  lines  of  thought  in  this  vol- 
ume—  the  processes  of  production,  and  the  regional 
distribution  of  wheat. 

The  method  used  in  the  treatment  of  this  industry 
is  based  upon  the  experience  of  successful  teachers  of 
industrial  geography.  It  calls  for  active  work  on  the  part 
of  the  students  under  the  guidance  of  the  teacher,  and 
uses  the  processes  and  products  of  wheat  as  objects  of 
thought.  This  affords  opportunity  for  excursions, 
written  reports,  class  discussions,  and  independent 
work  on  the  part  of  the  students.  The  teacher  should 
not  lecture  to  the  class.  She  should  guide  the  stu- 


Vll 


viii  PREFACE 

dents  in  their  efforts  and  lead  them  and  stimulate 
them  in  doing  individual  work. 

Relation  to  School  Subjects. —  In  most  schools  this  text 
will  be  used  as  a  reference  reader.  In  others,  it  will 
have  a  definite  place  in  the  seventh  or  eighth  grade, 
closely  correlated  with  geography.  This  is  in  line 
with  the  course  of  study  which  selects  one  or  two 
important  industries  for  investigation  each  semester  or 
term.  The  relation  to  the  regular  school  subjects  is 
definite. 

Geography.  —  First,  the  study  requires  the  frequent 
use  of  geographies  and  atlases.  In  following  the  dis- 
cussions on  wheat  regions  and  the  markets  and  com- 
mercial movement  of  wheat,  a  demand  will  arise  for 
the  reading  of  the  geography  of  the  leading  wheat 
countries.  This  gives  the  student  a  new  point  of  view 
and  leads  him  to  see  the  countries  in  their  industrial 
and  economic  relations.  By  tracing  the  commodities 
through  their  trade  routes  the  student  gains  a  clear 
understanding  of  commerce. 

Agriculture.  —  Since  the  production  is  under  different 
conditions  as  to  soil  and  climate,  these  in  turn  influ- 
ence both  the  processes  and  the  production.  Thus 
seeing  the  methods  of  wheat  production  in  these  coun- 
tries, the  student  becomes  better  acquainted  with  the 
life  of  the  people  and  their  institutions.  This  is  real 
geography  closely  related  to  agriculture. 

Language.  —  The  study  will  call  for  reports  from  stu- 
dents. These  should  be  made  in  good  form,  whether 


PREFACE  ix 

oral  or  written.  The  opportunity  for  language  work 
is  practically  unlimited. 

History.  —  The  interest  of  many  students  is  in  history. 
Since  wheat  is  a  very  old  plant  and  its  grain  has  been 
of  use  so  long,  there  is  in  this  the  possibility  of  devel- 
oping a  definite  trend  in  industrial  history. 

Domestic  Science.  —  Domestic  science  now  implies 
more  than  the  routine  work  of  the  kitchen.  The 
teacher  or  housewife  is  interested  in  wheat  because  it 
enters  into  more  food  relations  than  any  other  cereal. 
Understanding  the  processes  of  milling  adds  to  her 
intelligence  and  efficiency.  She  desires  to  know  why 
certain  kinds  of  wheat  make  better  flour  for  baking 
purposes  than  other  kinds.  She  also  wishes  to  know 
how  methods  of  bread  making  and  the  shapes  and  sizes 
of  loaves  differ  in  various  countries. 

Thus  it  is  seen  that  the  story  of  wheat  is  closely 
related  to  a  number  of  school  subjects  and  that  such 
correlation  will  add  interest  and  value  to  all. 

Excursions.  —  Some  may  be  content  with  reading  about 
wheat  without  asking  questions  or  making  excursions 
to  see  the  things  described.  By  seeing  wheat  in  the 
field,  by  watching  the  binder  and  thresher,  by  studying 
milling  and  other  processes  we,  however,  gain  first-hand 
knowledge.  In  some  schools  trips  are  made  for  this 
purpose.  It  is  difficult  for  some  students  to  make 
excursions  and  it  is  even  more  difficult  for  teachers  to 
find  time  to  conduct  them.  Although  it  may  often 
be  difficult  for  students,  and  even  more  difficult  for 


x  PREFACE 

teachers,  to  find  time  for  these  field  trips,  they  should, 
if  possible,  be  made.  The  gain  in  power  to  observe 
closely  and  describe  carefully  more  than  repays  for  the 
time  spent.  It  is  hoped,  however,  that  time  can  be 
found  for  field  trips,  that  the  students  may  be  courte- 
ous to  those  who  assist  them,  and  that  they  will  care- 
fully write  up  the  observations.  The  ideal  of  every 
one  should  be  to  observe  closely  and  to  describe  accu- 
rately. Of  course  all  observations  should  be  carefully 
written  up,  and  it  should  be  understood  that  excur- 
sions made  with  the  teacher  are  for  a  definite  purpose. 
They  are  school  work  in  the  field. 

Perhaps  the  best  results  from  field  observations  will 
come  from  student  trips  which  are  made  alone  or  in 
small  groups.  Many  observations  of  this  kind  may 
be  made  while  traveling  at  vacation  time.  Not  all 
have  the  privilege  of  travel,  yet  those  who  do  may  see 
industrial  things  well  worth  the  time  and  expense. 
A  trip  to  a  big  wheat  farm  of  the  West,  or  to  a  large 
flour  mill  at  Buffalo  or  Minneapolis,  will  be  a  pleasure 
when  made  for  a  purpose. 

Collecting  Specimens.  — -The  wheat  plant  in  different 
stages  of  growth  may  be  collected  from  the  field  by 
students  or  secured  by  writing  to  persons  who  live  in 
wheat-growing  regions.  Some  school  supply  houses 
sell  these,  as  well  as  wheat  products,  for  school  use. 
A  very  good  place  to  see  illustrative  materials  is  in 
commercial  museums  of  cities.  Some  of  the  large 
milling  companies  send  specimens  of  wheat  and  its 


PREFACE  xi 

products  to  schools  upon  request.  These  show  the 
grain,  the  flour,  and  each  process  in  flour  manufacture. 
It  is  better,  however,  for  the  class  to  collect  such  speci- 
mens while  studying  a  mill  and  its  operations. 

Products  such  as  breakfast  foods,  crackers,  etc.,  can 
be  obtained  from  stores  for  the  asking.  Specimens 
secured  for  class  study  should  be  used  freely.  Those 
to  be  retained  permanently  by  the  school  should  be 
labeled  and  placed  in  cases. 

Questions  and  Exercises.  —  At  the  end  of  each  chapter 
is  a  set  of  questions  and  exercises.  The  questions 
serve  to  guide  students  in  study  and  in,  class  discussion. 
They  may  be  answered  orally  or  in  writing.  Persons 
reading  the  book  for  information  and  not  making  a 
careful  study  are  not  expected  to  answer  the  questions. 

The  exercises  are  to  be  worked  out  or  omitted  as 
the  teacher  and  class  may  decide. 

The  authors  have  received  much  valuable  assistance 
in  the  preparation  of  this  text.  The  Editor  of  the 
series,  Dr.  G.  E.  Condra,  has  generously  assisted  in 
outlining  the  discussion  and  has  freely  contributed 
valuable  suggestions.  Miss  Jeannette  C.  Nelson,  De- 
partment of  Geography,  University  of  Nebraska,  has 
assisted  in  gathering  the  data  used  in  the  text.  Miss 
Minnie  Gant  of  the  Lincoln,  Nebraska,  city  schools 
and  Miss  Mary  Johnson  of  the  Los  Angeles,  Cali- 
fornia, city  schools,  have  given  helpful  criticism  from 
the  standpoint  of  grade  work. 

The  illustrations  are  largely  from  photographs  taken 


xii  PREFACE 

by  the  authors.  Many  others,  however,  have  kindly 
assisted  in  furnishing  views  suitable  for  use.  Special 
acknowledgments  are  due  the  following:  Frank  H. 
Shoemaker  ;  R.  A.  Lindsay  ;  Physiographic  Labora- 
tory, Cornell  University  ;  H.J.  Young;  E.  L.  Currier  ; 
Holt  Manufacturing  Company;  New  York  State  Board 
of  Agriculture ;  Pennsylvania  Railway;  Norfolk  and 
Western  Railway;  International  Harvester  Company; 
Washburn-Crosby  Mills ;  Loose- Wiles  Biscuit  Com- 
pany ;  New  Seattle  Chamber  of  Commerce ;  Canadian 
Pacific  Railway;  Winnipeg  Grain  Exchange;  Pan- 
American  Union  (views  on  Argentina) ;  Department 
of  Agriculture,  New  South  Wales,  Australia  (views  on 
Australia). 

The  authors  are  indebted  to  Mr.  E.  D.  Kiddoo  for 
the  preparation  of  the  index. 

N.    A.    BENGTSON. 
DONEE    GRIFFITH. 


TABLE    OF    CONTENTS 


CHAPTER 
I. 

To  THE  READER     

PAGE 
I 

II. 

THE  WHEAT  PLANT        

5 

III. 

CULTIVATION  AND  GROWTH    . 

.       18 

IV. 

HARVESTING    

•       43 

V. 

THRESHING      

•       65 

VI. 

LOCAL  TRANSPORTATION  AND  STORAGE  . 

.    J*4_ 

VII. 

PRODUCTION     ...... 

.       99 

VIII. 

MARKETING     

.       122 

IX. 

MILLING  

.      I44 

X. 

THE  USES  OF  WHEAT  PRODUCTS    . 

.       I67 

XL 

INDUSTRIAL  REVIEW        .         .  . 

.       I90 

XII. 

THE  WHEAT  COUNTRIES,  —  AUSTRALIA 

.      205 

XIII. 

WHEAT  IN  ARGENTINA    . 

.      217 

XIV. 

WHEAT  IN  THE  UNITED  STATES 

.      230 

XV. 

WHEAT  IN  CANADA         .... 

.      269 

XVI. 

WHEAT  IN  ASIA      

.      287 

XVII. 

WHEAT  IN  EUROPE         .... 

•      303 

The  Wheat  Industry 

CHAPTER  I 
TO    THE   READER 

THIS  book  is  for  students  of  the  schools,  but  it 
may  be  of  interest  to  others.  It  is  an  industrial 
story  of  wheat.  Most  people  know  that  wheat  is 
an  important  plant  in  several  countries,  and  we 
have  learned  in  geography  that  it  is  widely  culti- 
vated. The  grain  is  what  is  meant,  however,  and 
not  the  plant,  when  we  use  the  term  wheat  in  a 
general  sense. 

The  word  story,  as  here  used,  does  not  have  its 
usual  meaning.  Industry  has  to  do  with  resources, 
labor,  manufacture,  and  products.  These  are  all 
included  in  the  wheat  industry.  The  whole  story  of 
wheat,  involving  everything  done  with  it  on  the 
farm,  during  shipment  to  markets,  in  the  mills, 
and  in  the  factories,  is  included  in  this  description. 
Our  book  starts  with  the  processes  in  wheat  rais- 
ing and  follows  the  grain  and  its  products  through 
the  mills  and  markets.  This  is  the  reason  for 
calling  it  the  industrial  story  of  wheat. 


2  THE  WHEAT  INDUSTRY 

People  generally '  know  something  about  the 
wheat  industry.  Students  in  or  near  the  country 
see  such  processes  as  plowing,  seeding,  harvesting, 
and  threshing,  and  may  be  able  to  describe  them. 
These  persons,  however,  may  not  have  a  knowl- 
edge of  how  the  grain  is  handled  at  the  big  markets 


FIG.  i.  —  The  wheat  field  in  its  country  setting. 

nor  how  it  is  manufactured  into  flour  at  the  mills. 
Those  of  us  who  live  in  the  city  may  have  seen 
large  shipments  of  wheat  at  the  elevators  and  mills. 
Some  of  us  may  have  visited  mills  where  wheat 
is  made  into  flour,  or  bakeries  where  flour  is  made 
into  bread,  yet  we  may  know  very  little  of  how 
wheat  is  grown.  The  agricultural  processes  are 
no  better  understood  by  the  city  child  than  are 


TO  THE   READER  3 

the  mills  and  markets  by  the  country  boy.  So 
it  is  that  city  folk  and  country  folk  alike  do  not 
fully  understand  the  whole  story  of  the  industry. 
We  do  not  all  realize  that  wheat  is  extensively 
raised  in  countries  where  methods  of  production 
are  very  different  from  ours.  To  some  of  us, 


FIG.  2.  —  City  view  showing  elevators  and  railroads. 

plowing  carries  a  picture  of  a  great  steel  machine 
drawn  by  a  traction  engine ;  to  others  the  view 
of  a  riding  plow  pulled  by  three  horses  is  called  to 
mind.  But  many  do  not  know  that  in  parts  of 
Asia  large  fields  are  still  prepared  by  crude  wooden 
plows  pulled  by  oxen  or  camels.  Threshing  in  the 
Pacific  Northwest  is  done  by  huge  machines  which 


4  THE  WHEAT  INDUSTRY 

both  harvest  and  thresh  the  grain,  whereas  in 
some  other  countries  the  cradle  and  flail  are  still 
in  use.  The  seasons  of  planting  and  harvesting 
are  likewise  different.  Our  harvest  occurs  during 
the  time  of  year  when  Argentina  has  its  winter. 
The  people  of  Australia  are  cutting  their  wheat 
when  we  are  sitting  around  the  fires  and  telling 
stories  of  Santa  Claus.  These  are  illustrations 
which  merely  indicate  the  world-wide  importance 
of  wheat. 

To  learn  of  the  different  methods  of  production 
practiced  in  other  lands  will  lead  us  to  a  better 
appreciation  of  the  life  and  problems  of  other 
peoples.  Surely  such  a  subject  is  of  interest  and 
value. 

Our  story  takes  up  the  discussion  in  the  natural 
order,  —  from  the  seed  to  the  finished  products 
and  their  uses.  The  first  part  of  the  book  deals 
in  detail  with  the  processes  employed  in  wheat 
production.  The  latter  part  applies  this  discus- 
sion to  the  chief  wheat  raising  countries  of  the 
world.  Thus  knowing  the  order  in  which  the 
processes  come  in  the  industry,  we  can  make  our 
own  outline  of  topics. 

QUESTIONS 

1.  What  is  an  industry? 

2.  Suggest  several  reasons  why  an  industrial   study  of 
wheat  should  be  of  interest  to  all. 


CHAPTER   II 
THE   WHEAT  PLANT 

BOTANISTS  tell  us  that  wheat  is  a  grass.  Its 
development  from  a  wild  grass  to  that  of  the 
domesticated  plant  of  to-day  is  fairly  well  known 
and  forms  an  interesting  study.  From  the  stand- 
point of  industry,  however,  we  are  more  concerned 
with  its  present  than  its  past.  The  wheat  plant 
is  one  of  our  leading  life  resources,  for  it  yields  the 
world's  greatest  bread  cereal.  Let  us  become 
better  acquainted  with  this  plant  before  taking 
up  the  industry  of  which  it  forms  the  basis. 

The  Parts  of  the  Wheat  Plant.  --The  plant  is  all 
that  grows  from  one  seed,  and  its  parts  are  the 
roots,  stems,  leaves,  and  heads.  These  work 
together  in  producing  the  grain.  The  young 
plant  appears  to  be  for  the  most  part  leaves  and 
roots.  The  older  plants  have  prominent  stems  or 
stalks  supporting  heads,  called  spikes.  In  these 
heads  are  formed  the  flowers  and  kernels.  A  brief 
description  of  these  parts  will  serve  to  show  what 
the  wheat  plant  is  like.  Learning  some  of  these 
things  will  prepare  us  to  understand  the  processes 

5 


THE  WHEAT  INDUSTRY 


in  cultivation,  harvesting,  and  manufacture,  which 
will  be  discussed  in  later  chapters. 

The  Roots.  — 
The  roots  are  the 
underground  part 
of  the  plant.  As 
the  wheat  kernel 
germinates  it 
sends  out  a  root 
from  its  lower 
end  ;  this  is  soon 
followed  by  two 
others ;  and  these 
first  three  are 
called  temporary 
roots,  because 
they  serve  the 
plant  for  but  a 
short  time.  After 
the  stem  has 
pushed  above 
ground  the  per- 
manent roots  de- 
velop. These 
grow  in  whorls 
from  joints  on  the 
stem  a  little  be- 
low the  surface  of  the  soil.  They  grow  outward 
to  varying  distances  from  the  stem,  and  then  turn 


FIG.  3.  —  Wheat  plants.  Note  roots,  stalks, 
leaves,  and  spikes.  Several  stems  may,  because  of 
tillering,  grow  from  one  seed. 


THE  WHEAT  PLANT  7 

sharply  downward .  These  roots  are  branching  fibers 
which  not  only  serve  to  hold  the  plant  in  position, 
but  also  to  gather  from  the  soil  moisture  and  food 
materials  which  are  later  converted  into  plant  and 
grain.  Few  of  us  realize  how  extensive  is  the  root 
system  of  the  wheat  plant.  Sometimes  the  roots 
penetrate  to  depths  of  4  to  7  feet,  and  the  roots 
of  a  single  plant  may,  if  laid  end  to  end,  measure 
more  than  1500  feet. 

The  Stems. — The  stems  are,  by  some,  called 
culms.  They  are  short  and  not  very  noticeable 
in  the  young  plant.  As  the  plant  becomes  older 
and  the  root  system  well  developed,  the  stems 
rapidly  lengthen  and  become  hollow,  jointed  tubes. 
The  length  of  the  stem  differs  with  varieties,  soils, 
climate,  and  seasons.  Common  wheat  usually 
grows  from  three  to  four  feet  high.  The  color 
is  green  while  the  stem  is  growing  but  changes  to 
yellowish  at  harvest  time. 

As  a  rule  each  wheat  seed  produces  several  stems. 
This  is  a  desirable  quality,  for  it  makes  possible  a 
large  yield  of  grain  for  the  amount  of  seed  sown. 
The  method  of  growth  which  produces  so  many 
stems  is  called  tillering  or  stooling.  Rich  soil, 
abundant  moisture,  early  seeding,  and  thin  stands 
favor  tillering.  Sometimes  fifty  or  more  stems 
spring  from  a  single  seed.  In  most  fields,  however, 
the  number  is  from  four  to  eight. 

The  stem  is  quite  strong  and  rigid,  and  holds  the 


8  THE  WHEAT  INDUSTRY 

leaves  and  head  in  the  air  and  sunshine.  It  also 
serves  as  a  passageway  to  transfer  food  materials 
from  the  roots  to  other  parts  of  the  plant.  The 
upper  part  of  the  stem  remains  green  until  late 
in  the  period  of  ripening  and  seems  to  do  work 
similar  to  that  of  the  leaves  in  manufacturing 
food  for  the  grain. 

The  Leaves.  — The  leaves  are  long,  slender  blades 
growing  from  the  stem.  They  are  close  together 
on  young  plants  and  become  farther  apart  as  the 
joints  of  the  stem  lengthen  during  growth.  The 
leaves  are  small  workshops  as  well  as  breathing 
machines,  and  do  a  very  important  work  for  the 
plant.  They  are  filled  with  small  canals  through 
which  solutions  flow,  and  the  surface  has  innu- 
merable pores  which  admit  air.  Moisture  and 
food  material  are  transferred  from  the  roots  to  the 
leaves,  and  gases  are  taken  directly  from  the  air. 
Within  the  leaves,  with  the  aid  of  sunlight,  these 
food  materials,  gases,  and  moisture  are  combined 
and  changed  into  food  substances  such  as  starch, 
sugar,  and  cellulose.  The  leaf  products  are  carried 
to  the  heads  of  the  plant  and  built  into  fruit  or 
grain.  With  abundance  of  moisture  and  a  rich 
soil  these  processes  make  rapid  progress  with  the 
result  that  the  plant  acquires  strong  growth  and 
produces  a  heavy  yield.  If  moisture  is  lacking 
or  the  soil  is  weak,  the  work  goes  on  more  slowly  or 
for  a  shorter  period.  The  lower  leaves  soon  be- 


THE  WHEAT  PLANT 


come  weak  and  inactive  or  they  may  die.  The 
early  closing  of  several  workshops  weakens  the 
plant  and  results  in  a  lessened  crop  and  inferior 
quality  of  grain. 

The  Heads  or  Spikes.  —  These  bear  the  fruit. 
The  head  or  spike  is  composed 
of  several  parts.  Furthermore, 
the  heads  of  different  kinds  of 
wheat  are  unlike  in  form,  length, 
size,  and  number  of  parts.  They 
may  be  flattened,  square,  taper- 
ing, or  club  form.  Some  wheats 
have  long  awns  or  beards  and 
in  others  the  beards  are  of  me- 
dium length,  short,  or  nearly 
wanting.  The  appearance  of 
the  head  is  affected  much  by 
the  position  of  the  beards, 
whether  parallel  or  spreading. 
Heads  of  beardless  wheat  ap- 
pear smooth  and  easy  to  han- 
dle. Figure  4  shows  these 
types  of  heads.  Note  how  they  FlG' 
differ. 

The  head  is  made  up  principally  of  spikelets 
(Fig.  5).  These  are  attached  to  the  upper  part 
of  the  stem,  and  contain  first  the  flowers  and 
later  the  kernels.  The  kernels  are  inclosed  in 
scale-like  coverings  called  "  glumes,"  some  of 


4.  —  Bearded      and 
beardless  wheat. 


io  THE  WHEAT  INDUSTRY 

which  bear  the  beards.  If  there  is  an  opportu- 
nity, we  should  observe  heads  of  wheat,  and  count 
the  spikelets,  noting  whether  they  are  open, 
compact,  or  crowded  in  the  head.  Opening  the 
spikelets,  we  should  count  the  number  of  kernels 


FIG.  5.  —  The  upper  end  of  a  sphere  (at    the  left)    showing    spikelets,  glumes, 
beards,  and  kernels. 

in  each  and  see  whether  they  are  held  in  position 
firmly  or  loosely.  Most  wheats  have  two  or  three 
kernels  in  each  spikelet. 

The  Grain.  -  -  The  most  useful  product  of  the 
head  is  the  grain.  Do  we  know  what  a  kernel  or 
grain  of  wheat  is  like  ?  Many  people  cannot  tell 
it  from  rye  or  barley  and  some  cannot  tell  it  from 
corn. 


THE  WHEAT  PLANT 


ii 


Kernels  of  grain  secured  from  the  farm,  elevator, 
or  the  mill  will  show  the  following :  the  oval 
form,  the  furrow  or  suture  on  the  inner  side,  and 
the  germ  or  embryo  at  the  lower  end  (Fig.  6). 

By  cutting  the  kernels  we  can  learn  of  their 
hardness.     Some  varieties  are  much  harder  than 
others,  and  so  wheat 
is   classified   as  hard 
or  soft  on  the  mar- 
kets.   Imperfect  ker- 
nels  are   soft,   light, 
and    chaffy.      Grain 
dealers    call    them 
unsound. 

The  natural  colors 
of  the  grain  are 
whitish,  yellowish, 
reddish,  or  darker, 
depending  on  the 
variety  and  climate. 
The  natural  color  is 
modified  by  rains 
and  other  weather  conditions  at  harvest  time. 

The  Parts  of  the  Kernel.  -  -  The  wheat  kernel 
has  three  principal  parts,  the  coatings,  the  embryo, 
and  the  starchy  interior  called  the  endosperm. 
We  shall  not  fully  describe  these  parts.  Such  a 
study  belongs  to  a  department  of  agriculture 
called  agronomy.  Our  chief  interest  is  in  the 


FIG.  6.  —  The  wheat  grain:     /,  cheek;     2, 
suture  ;  j,  brush  ;  4,  embryo. 


12 


THE  WHEAT  INDUSTRY 


Aleurone 
Layer 


Seed  Coats 


Starch  Cells  s^^a!asa£^^  Germ 

FIG.  7.  —  Diagram  showing  structure  of  wheat. 


quality  and  use  of  the  grain.  What  we  have 
studied  about  the  physiology  of  foods  may  help 
us  to  understand  the  meaning  of  such  terms  as 
cellulose,  starch,  sugar,  fats  and  oils,  and  ash. 

All  of  these  mate- 
Pericarp     rials  are  in  the  wheat 
grain. 

The  kernel  has 
several  layers  in  its 
outer  portion.  The 
outer  ones  are  com- 
posed principally  of 
cellulose.  They  produce  the  bran  in  flour  mak- 
ing. One  of  these  layers  contains  considerable 
coloring  matter.  The  bran  layers  make  up  about 
five  per  cent  of  the  weight  of  the  entire  kernel. 


— Pericarp  or  Outer  Seed  Coat 

---Inner  Seed  Coats 
-—--Aleurone  Layer 

Starch  Cells 

FIG.  8.  —  Highly  magnified  section  of  a  portion  of  wheat  grain. 

Just  inside  the  bran,  between  it  and  the  endo- 
sperm, is  the  cereal  or  aleurone  layer  of  large 
gluten  cells.  This  division  makes  three  to  four 
per  cent  of  the  weight  of  the  grain. 


THE  WHEAT  PLANT  13 

The  starchy  interior  is  eighty  per  cent  or  more 
of  the  weight  of  the  kernel.  Viewed  under  the 
microscope,  it  is  shown  to  contain  cells  filled  with 
starch  grains.  The  cell  walls  are  cellulose.  Be- 
sides starch,  which  is  the  principal  material  in 
the  cells  of  the  endosperm,  are  protein,  some  oils, 
and  a  little  sugar.  The  term  gluten,  so  often 
used,  is  not  a  single  substance.  It  includes  two 
or  more  kinds  of  the  protein.  The  gluten  is 
important  in  wheat  since  it  gives  baking  qualities 
to  flour. 

Germ.  -  -  The  germ  is  a  miniature  plant  ready 
to  grow  when  it  is  planted.  It  is  very  appropri- 
ately called  the  embryo.  This  part  of  the  seed  is 
connected  with  the  endosperm,  from  which  it 
draws  food  supplies  during  germination.  When 
man  uses  the  grain  for  food  he  changes  all  this 
provision  of  nature.  The  food  materials  in  the 
embryo  are  principally  fats  or  oils,  although  there 
is  also  protein,  sugar,  and  starch. 

By  weight,  ten  per  cent  or  more  of  the  wheat 
grain  is  water,  though  the  amount  varies  greatly. 
There  is  also  some  ash  in  each  part  of  the  grain. 

The  Kinds  of  Wheat.  -  -  The  various  kinds  of 
wheat  represent  to  some  extent  the  natural  -  in- 
fluences of  the  countries  in  which  they  have  grown 
so  long.  Yet  they  have  been  greatly  modified  by 
man  during  recent  years.  The  State  Agricultural 
Colleges  and  Experiment  Stations  have  by  careful 


THE  WHEAT  INDUSTRY 


THE  WHEAT  PLANT  15 

selection,  breeding,  and  cultivation  developed 
desired  qualities  in  many  varieties.  Scientists  of 
our  country  have  explored  practically  all  wheat- 
growing  regions  of  the  world  and  collected  seed 
for  experimental  work  in  the  United  States.  In 
this  way  wheat  has  been  carried  from  country  to 
country  and  new  varieties  have  been  developed. 
We  now  have  wheats  better  suited  to  the  soil, 
climate,  and  seasons  of  the  many  regions.  The 
grain  has  also  been  changed  as  to  its  food  values, 
making  it  better  suited  for  specific  purposes.  The 
wheat  we  see  is  fully  domesticated.  It  could  not 
survive  if  left  alone.  The  old  and  unimproved 
varieties  are  of  little  value. 

The  Types  of  Wheat.  -  -  The  following  outline 
shows  the  eight  divisions  to  which  the  1000  and 
more  varieties  of  cultivated  wheat  belong.  They 
are  called  types  (Fig.  9). 

1.  Einkorn  is  a  very  old  type  with  one  kernel  in  each 
spikelet.     It  has  little  importance. 

2.  Spelt  is  a  dry  land  wheat  cultivated  mostly  in  Europe 
and  used  principally  for  stock  feed. 

3.  Emmer  has  a  compact,  flat  head  bearing  hard,  reddish 
grain.     It  is  a  dry  land  wheat  extensively  grown  in  Russia. 
It  is  produced   in  the  United   States,  where  it  is  wrongly 
called  spelt. 

4.  Club  Wheat,  so  named  because  of  its  form,  has  a  com- 
pact spike.     Its  short,  stiff  straw  holds  the  grain  remarkably 
well,  making  it  resistant  to  lodging.     The  glumes  likewise 
are  stiff,  do  not  open  easily  even  when  ripe,  and  thus  tend 


i6 


THE  WHEAT  INDUSTRY 


to  keep  the  spikes  from  scattering  and  spilling  the  grain. 
This  wheat  is  well  suited  for  cultivation  in  the  Rocky 
Mountain  and  Pacific  Coast  states  where  the  grain  is  often 
allowed  to  stand  for  weeks  after  it  is  ripe  before  harvesting. 

The  type  is  grown  princi- 
pally in  Chile,  Turkestan, 
Abyssinia,  and  in  the  west- 
ern part  of  the  United 
States. 

5.  Poulard  Wheat    is 
drought  and  heat  resistant. 
It  is  related  to  the  durum 
varieties.      It   is    raised    for 
experimental    purposes  only 
in    the   United    States,    but 
has  importance  as  a  crop  in 
Europe  and  Africa. 

6.  Durum    or    Macaroni 
Wheat,  is  adapted  to  regions 
of  low   rainfall.       It   is   tall 
and     vigorous     with     wide 
leaves,  short,  compact  heads, 
and  long  beards.     The  large 
kernels    are    rich    in    gluten 
content.     This  wheat  is  used 
extensively  in  the  manufac- 
ture   of    macaroni.       It    is 
grown    widely     in     various 
foreign    countries    and    has 

importance  in  the  Great  Plains  Region  of  the  United  States 
and  Canada. 

7.  Polish  Wheat  is  known  also  by  the  names  Giant  Rye 
and  Jerusalem  Wheat.  The  grain  is  not  very  productive. 
It  is  rich  in  gluten  and  low  in  starch.  The  type  is  grown 


FIG.  10.  —  Einkorn,  close  view.  This 
is  considered  the  most  primitive  of  the 
wheats. 


THE  WHEAT  PLANT  17 

principally  in  southern  Europe  and  used  in  the  manufacture 
of  macaroni. 

8.  Common  Wheat  is  the  type  of  greatest  commercial 
importance.  It  is  grown  in  most  wheat  regions  of  the  world. 
It  ranks  first  because  flour  made  from  it  is  in  greatest  demand 
for  bread  making. 

The  number  of  varieties  is  very  great.  In  some 
places  they  are  merely  classed  as  soft,  medium, 
and  hard.  They  are  also  known  as  spring  and 
winter  wheat.  A  fuller  description  of  the  kinds  of 
wheat  is  made  in  connection  with  the  discussion 
of  the  wheat-growing  countries. 

QUESTIONS  AND  EXERCISES 

1.  What  is  a  plant  ? 

2.  Plant  some  wheat  in  a  garden  plot.     If  it  is  the  winter 
season,  plant  a  few  kernels  in  a  shallow  box  which  may  be 
kept  in  a  window.     Determine  the  length  of  time  ejapsing 
before  the  leaves  appear.     Study  the  plant  as  to  root  system, 
arrangement  of  leaves,  and  rate  of  growth. 

3.  (a)  Why  may  leaves  well  be  called  workshops  of  the 
plant  ? 

(b)  What  are  the  functions  of  the  stem  ? 

4.  What  part  of  the  wheat  kernel  is  of  greatest  impor- 
tance for  flour  ? 

5.  Through  what  agencies  is  the  question  of  what  wheats 
are  best  adapted  to  certain  regions  being  determined  ? 

6.  Suggest  a  reason  why  Einkorn  is  so  named. 

7.  Where   is    Club    Wheat    important?     What    are   its 
advantages  ? 

8.  Where  is  Durum  Wheat  extensively  grown  ?     Why  ? 

9.  Why  is  Common  Wheat  of  greatest  importance  from 
the  standpoint  of  industry  ? 


CHAPTER   III 
CULTIVATION  AND  GROWTH 

THE.  most  ancient  history  of  which  we  have  any 
knowledge  makes  mention  of  wheat  as  a  promi- 
nent food  material.  We  know  from  this  that  it 
was  one  of  the  first  grains  to  be  cultivated.  No 
one  knows  when  it  first  became  a  domestic  plant. 
Probably  wild  wheat  found  favor  with  prehistoric 
peoples  because  of  its  large  kernels  and  agreeable 
taste.  They  may  have  thought  of  assisting  the 
growth  of  the  plant  by  crudely  preparing  the  soil 
and  scattering  seeds  and  by  keeping  out  other 
plants.  In  some  such  manner  cultivation  and 
domestication  came  about  centuries  ago.  Since 
that  time  wheat  has  become  so  dependent  on  man 
for  its  very  existence  that  if  left  uncared  for,  it 
could  not  survive.  In  its  contest  with  other 
grasses  and  weeds,  wheat  would  be  crowded  out 
and  probably  in  a  few  years  would  almost  com- 
pletely disappear.  But  wheat  is  such  a  desirable 
article  of  human  food  that  man  helps  it  in  its 
struggle  with  its  rivals.  The  care  given  for  the 
sake  of  promoting  growth  and  insuring  yield  is 

18 


CULTIVATION  AND  GROWTH  19 

known  as  cultivation,  and  plants  so  grown  are 
called  the  cultivated  or  domestic  plants. 

The  Cultivation  of  Wheat.  —  Cultivation  of 
wheat  consists  essentially  of  three  processes,  — 
preparation  of  the  seed  bed,  seed  selection,  and 
planting.  The  crop  is  grown  in  many  countries 
under  diverse  conditions  of  soil,  climate,  and  even 
of  people.  It  is  interesting,  therefore,  to  study 
the  processes  involved  in  wheat  raising  •  in  our 
country  and  to  compare  our  methods  with  those 
of  foreign  lands. 

Plowing  the  Soil.  -  -  The  first  work  in  the  prep- 
aration of  the  seed  bed/  is  to  loosen  the  upper  por- 
tion of/the  soil,  usually  to  depths  of  from  three  to 
eight  inches.  The  tool  for  this  work  varies  from 
the  crooked  stick  used  by  some  of  the  savages  or 
semicivilized  peoples  to  that  of  the  large  tractor 
plows  used  on  the  Great  Plains.  A  long-bladed 
hoe  is  still  in  use  among  isolated  mountaineers  in 
Switzerland,  northwest  Spain,  and  parts  of  Nor- 
way. 

Even  in  fairly  important  wheat  sections  of 
Egypt,  Asia  Minor,  and  the  Balkan  States,  some 
very  crude  plows  are  used.  One-handled  wooden 
plows  with  only  a  steel  point  are  common  in  those 
districts.  These  plows  are  drawn  by  cattle,  don- 
keys, or  camels  which  work  singly  or  in  pairs  and 
sometimes  in  peculiar  combinations.  For  instance 
it  is  not  an  uncommon  sight  to  see  a  farmer  plow- 


20  THE  WHEAT  INDUSTRY 

ing  with  a  team  consisting  of  a  cow  and  a  camel 
or  a  cow  and  a  donkey.  In  the  United  States 
such  teams  would  undoubtedly  attract  consider- 
able attention. 

The    small    steel    walking    plow    with    wooden 


Courtesy  of  International  Harvester  Co. 
FIG.  ii.  —  Plowing  in  Egypt  with  cows  and  camel.     Wooden  plow. 

handles  is  common  in  our  own  country  only  in 
regions  of  small  fields.  -  .The  use  of  this  plow  in 
wheat  growing  is  confined  almost  entirely  to  the 
Eastern  states.  It  cuts  a  furrow  from  twelve  to 
sixteen  inches  wide  and  is  usually  drawn  by  two 
or  three  horses,  the  latter  number  always  being 
used  with  the  larger  sized  plow.  But  very  little 


CULTIVATION  AND  GROWTH 


21 


wheat  is  grown  in  the  United  States  for  which  the 
plowing  is  done  by  only  one  horse.  This  method 
is  used  only  on  small  tracts  in  very  hilly  districts. 
The  single  furrow  riding  plow  predominates  in 
the  mixed  farming  portions  of  the  Central  states. 
There  wheat  is  important,  but  is  not  the  only 


FIG.  12. —  Plowing  with  the  common  two-bottom  gang  plow.     Each  cutting  lay 
makes  a  twelve-inch  furrow. 

profitable  crop.  It  has  keen  competitors  in  corn, 
oats,  clover,  and  alfalfa.  Land  is  high  priced. 
For  these  various  reasons  fields  are  moderate  in 
size,  ranging  usually  from  twenty  to  sixty  acres 
each.  Hence  the  riding  plow,  locally  called  the 
''sulky''  seems  to  be  best  adapted  to  the  farming 
conditions.  It  cuts  a  sixteen-inch  furrow,  runs 
on  three  wheels,  and  is  pulled  by  three  or  four 


22 


THE  WHEAT  INDUSTRY 


CULTIVATION  AND  GROWTH  23 

horses.  The  driver  rides,  his  chief  work  being  to 
guide  the  horses  and  to  so  regulate  the  machine 
that  it  will  plow  at  required  depth.  This  is  done 
by  means  of  a  lever  within  easy  reach  of  the 
driver.  In  addition  to  the  lever  there  is  also  a 
foot  lift  by  means  of  which  the  plow  may  be 
raised  entirely  out  of  the  ground.  The  foot  lift 
is  convenient  in  turning  at  the  end  of  the  field 
because  then  both  hands  are  busy  with  the  lines, 
guiding  the  horses.  Three  or  four  acres  is  con- 
sidered a  fair  day's  work  with  this  outfit. 

Where  large  wheat  fields  prevail,  as  on  the 
High  Plains  from  Texas  to  Canada  and  in  some 
parts  of  California,  Oregon,  and  Washington,  gang 
plows  are  used  extensively.  From  two  to  sixteen 
plows  are  built  on  one  frame,  the  whole  being 
referred  to  as  a  two-bottom  or  sixteen-bottom 
plow.  The  two,  three,  or  four  bottom  plows  are 
usually  drawn  by  horses  or  mules,  while,  with  the 
larger  sizes,  either  steam,  gasoline,  or  kerosene 
tractors  are  used.  In  the  corn  belt  from  Ohio  to 
Nebraska,  where  wheat  is  an  important  crop,  the 
two-bottom  gang  plow  is  quite  common.  It  is 
pulled  by  five  or  six  horses,  driven  by  one  man, 
who  considers  five  or  six  acres  a  good  day's  work. 
In  the  High  Plains  country  west  of  this  region  ten 
to  sixteen  bottom  plows  drawn  by  great  tractors 
are  a  common  sight.  There,  over  large  areas,  the 
wiry,  panting  cowboy's  pony  has  been  supplanted 


24  THE  WHEAT  INDUSTRY 

by  the  ponderous,  puffing,  iron  horse.  The  large 
gang  plows  also  predominate  in  the  great  unirri- 
gated  wheat  districts  of  California,  Oregon,  Wash- 
ington, and  Idaho.  Wherever  irrigation  is  prac- 
ticed the  fields  are  smaller  and  so  large  plows  have 
not  generally  proved  economical. 

The  type  of  plow  used  varies  somewhat  with  the 
soil.  It  generally  consists  of  a  cutting  edge 
termed  a  lay  or  share  and  a  moldboard.  The 
work  is  done  by  cutting  under  and  turning  over 
the  soil  to  whatever  depth  is  desired,  ordinarily 
from  four  to  eight  inches.  The  moldboard  type 
of  plow  is  used  in  regions  of  clay  or  sandy  clay 
soils  and  of  fairly  heavy  rainfall.  In  regions 
where  the  soil  is  more  sandy  and  quite  dry  at 
plowing  time,  another  type  called  the  disc  plow 
is  extensively  used. 

The  disc  plow  cuts  downward  with  a  rolling 
motion,  pushes  the  soil  to  the  side,  and  partly 
turns  it  (Fig.  14).  This  machine  has  the  advan- 
tage of  doing  its  work  somewhat  more  easily  than 
the  common  moldboard  plow  but  is /not  as  well 
adapted  to  all  conditions.  Its  most  extensive  use 
in  the  United  States  is  in  California  and  the  states 
of  the  Northwest,  though  it  is  used  to  some  extent 
in  the  Central  states. 

The  Time  of  Plowing. — Autumn  is  the  time 
when  the  greater  part  of  the  plowing  for  wheat  is 
done.  In  winter  wheat  districts,  this  is  of  course 


CULTIVATION  AND  GROWTH  25 

necessary,  and  the  plowman  is  impatient  to  have 
the  field  cleared  of  the  previous  crop  so  that  he 
may  do  his  work  early.  Careful  studies  seem  to 
show  that  early  plowing  is  favorable  to  the  best 
yield  for  the  succeeding  year.  It  conserves  mois- 
ture and  provides  a  better  packed  seed  bed. 


FIG.  14.  —  The  disc  plow.     Instead  of  moldboards  and  lays,  large  discs  are  used 
to  cut  and  turn  the  soil.     Some  farmers  prefer  this  kind. 


In  spring  wheat  districts,  the  ground  is  usually 
plowed  in  the  fall  because  the  wheat  needs  to  be 
sown  as  early  in  the  spring  as  possible.  This  is 
particularly  true  where  the  growing  season  is 
short  as  in  Minnesota  or  the  Dakotas.  There 
the  seeding  is  done  as  soon  as  the  ground  is  free 
from  frost.  The  soil  is  well  ventilated  by  the 


26  THE  WHEAT  INDUSTRY 

plowing  and  then  settles  during  the  winter  so  that 
a  compact  bed  is  provided  for  spring  seeding. 
There  are  some  places  of  longer  growing  season 
and  heavier  soil,  where  spring  plowing  is  in  high 
favor. 

The  Preparation  of  the  Seed  Bed  without  Plowing. 

-  In  the  corn  belt  region  some  farmers  sow 
spring  wheat  in  old  corn  fields  without  using  the 
plow  at  all.  In  such  cases  the  soil  is  stirred  by 
means  of  a  cultivator  or  disc  harrow.  Generally 
where  this  is  practiced  a  quick  rotation  of  crops 
is  desired  and  spring  wheat  is  thought  to  pay 
better  than  oats. 

Winter  wheat  is  raised  in  some  localities  with- 
out the  use  of  the  plow.  In  the  corn  belt  the 
wheat  is  sometimes  planted  by  a  five-hoe  drill 
between  the  corn  rows.  There  is  no  special 
preparation  other  than  that  furnished  by  the 
drill.  The  ground  has  been  prepared  by  the 
cultivation  of  the  corn.  This  is  possible  only 
where  the  fields  are  free  from  weeds,  where  the 
stalks  have  not  been  blown  down  to  any  great 
extent,  and  where  the  soil  is  quite  mellow.  It  is 
not  a  method  in  universal  use  nor  one  that  can  be 
depended  upon  in  a  given  locality.  In  some 
instances  the  corn  is  cut  and  shocked  as  fodder 
and  the  wheat  sown  in  the  vacated  field  without 
special  preparation.  Where  the  ground  is  weedy 
or  the  soil  not  loose  enough  for  a  seed  bed,  the 


CULTIVATION  AND  GROWTH 


27 


field  is  stirred  with  a  shovel  cultivator  and  tooth 
harrow  or  with  a  disc  harrow.  The  practice  of 
sowing  winter  wheat  in  corn  fields  is,  however, 
limited.  Generally  the  yield  is  not  so  good  as  on 
plowed  ground.  Its  advantage  lies  in  furnishing 
a  quick  change  from  corn  to  wheat,  both  profitable 
crops,  without  using  the  usual  connecting  link, 


FIG.  15.  —  Harrowing,  the  final  process  in  preparing  the  soil  for  sowing. 
In  many  cases,  the  driver  walks  behind  the  harrow  instead  of  riding  upon  it 
as  shown  here. 

oats,  which,  in  many  instances,  has  not  proved  to 
be  profitable. 

Another  plowless  method  of  seed-bed  prepa- 
ration is  employed  quite  extensively  in  the  High 
Plains  region  where  wheat  is  grown  on  the  same 
ground  several  years  in  succession.  Instead  of 
plowing,  the  soil  is  merely  stirred  with  the  disc 
harrow.  Usually  the  field  is  double  harrowed, 


28 


THE  WHEAT  INDUSTRY 


the  second  time  at  right  angles  to  the  first.  Gen- 
erally speaking,  this  method  is  used  only  where 
the  soil  is  light  and  the  rainfall  scant.  As  a  rule 
even  in  such  regions  the  land  is  plowed  every 
other  year. 

Harrowing  the  Soil.  —  After  plowing,  the  land 
is  smoothed  down,  the  clods  pulverized,  and  the 


FIG.  16.  —  Harrowing  the  ground  before  drilling  the  wheat.     This  harrow,  drawn 
by  five  horses,  takes  a  strip  twenty  feet  wide. 

soil  packed  to  some  extent.  This  is  accomplished 
by  harrowing.  The  harrow  is  commonly  of  the 
toothed  type ;  that  is,  iron  spikes  set  in  pipes  or 
bars  (Fig.  16).  The  size  of  the  harrow  varies 
from  the  small  one-section  four-foot  width,  drawn 
by  one  horse,  to  the  four-section  twenty-foot 
width,  pulled  by  five  horses.  With  the  larger 
outfit  one  man  and  a  team  can  cover  60  acres  in  a 


CULTIVATION  AND  GROWTH 


29 


day  and,  with  the  smaller,  five  acres  is  a  good 
day's  work.  Usually  in  the  wheat  belts  of  our 
country  the  harrow  used  is  the  three-section  18- 
foot  width,  drawn  by  four  horses.  Ofttimes  a  two- 
wheeled  cart  is  attached  to  the  rear  of  the  harrow 
or  a  seat  is  arranged  on  top  to  furnish  riding 


FIG.  17.  —  Discing  the  plowed   ground.     This   cuts   and   crushes  the  clods,  and 
assists  in  preparing  a  good  seed  bed. 

accommodations  for  the  driver.  Sometimes  an 
extra  horse  is  used  on  which  the  driver  rides. 
More  often,  however,  the  harrowing  is  done  by 
boys  who  walk  behind  the  machine.  This  method 
is  widely  employed  where  the  small  one-horse  or 
two-horse  harrows  are  used. 

In   the   corn    belt    area  of  the  wheat    section, 


30  THE  WHEAT  INDUSTRY 

where  several  weeks  intervene  between  plowing 
and  seeding,  heavy  rains  and  luxuriant  weed 
growth  necessitate  more  vigorous  stirring  of  the 
top  soil.  This  calls  for  the  use  of  the  disc  harrow 
prior  to  that  of  the  tooth  harrow.  Where  this  is 
the  case  the  harrowing  is  usually  delayed  until 
about  seeding  time.  This  is  in  contrast  to  the 


FIG.  18.  —  A  field  ready  to  be  seeded  to  wheat.     Note  the  smooth  seed  bed. 

method  followed  in  the  drier  districts,  where 
harrowing  follows  soon  after  plowing,  often  the 
same  day.  In  some  cases  it  is  even  accomplished 
by  a  small  harrow  attached  to  the  plow.  In  this 
way  clods  are  immediately  crushed  and  a  loose 
surface  mulch  provided  which  assists  in  retaining 
moisture.  This  is  a  great  advantage  where  rain- 
fall is  likely  to  be  deficient.  It  is,  however,  a 


CULTIVATION  AND  GROWTH  31 

disadvantage  where  heavy  rains  occur,  for  in  such 
case  a  smooth  crusted  surface  results  which  is 
difficult  to  pulverize  and  prepare  into  a  suitable 
seed  bed.  Thus  we  see  how  closely  man's  activ- 
ities even  in  this  small  detail  are  related  to  climatic 
conditions. 

Methods  of  Seeding.  —  Two  processes  are  in- 
volved in  planting  the  grain  :  sowing  and  covering. 
These  processes  may  or  may  not  be  performed  by 
the  same  machine.  Where  seed  is  scattered  rather 
evenly  over  the  ground,  the  process  is^known  as 
broadcasting;  where  the  seed  is  sown  in  rows  the 
method  is  termed  drilling. 

In  most  places  where  wheat  is  grown  only  in 
small  tracts,  the  seed  is  sown  by  hand.  The 
sower  usually  holds  a  bag  of  seed  on  his  left  arm 
and  scatters  the  grain  with  his  right  hand  (Fig. 
19).  Sometimes  he  carries  the  seed  in  a  trough- 
like  box  hung  from  his  shoulders,  leaving  both 
hands  free  to  use  in  scattering  the  seed.  Sowing, 
then,  consists  in  "  casting  abroad,"  which  has 
given  rise  to  the  term  broadcast.  Considerable 
skill  is  necessary  to  scatter  the  seed  evenly,  and 
the  worker  presents  a  pleasing  sight  as  he  ad- 
vances with  measured  tread  and  rhythmic  swing. 
This  scene  furnished  the  inspiration  for  Millet's 
famous  painting,  The  Sower. 

Wherever  wheat  is  grown  on  a  larger  scale, 
machine  seeding  is  employed.  The  broadcast 


32  THE  WHEAT  INDUSTRY 

methods  may  be  in  this  case  done  by  machinery. 
Small  hand  machines  like  those  used  in  sowing 
grass  seed  or  machines  fastened  to  wagons  and 
driven  by  power  transmitted  from  the  turning 
wheels  are  often  employed.  This  latter  type  is 
known  as  the  end-gate  seeder  and  was  formerly 
used  extensively  for  sowing  spring  wheat  in  old 


FIG.  19.  —  Sowing  by  hand.     A  method  now  used  only  for  small  fields  or  where 
primitive  agricultural  methods  are  still  employed. 

corn  fields.  The  common  broadcast  seeder,  a 
separate  machine  drawn  by  horse  power,  consists 
of  a  hopper  connected  with  a  series  of  scattering 
devices  which  spread  the  seed  evenly  over  the 
ground.  Such  a  machine  is  of  light  draft  and  is 
made  in  various  wdths  from  eight  to  twenty-four 
feet.  * 


CULTIVATION  AND  GROWTH 


33 


Wherever  broadcast  sowing  is ,  practiced,  some 
method  of  covering  must  be  employed.  In  plowed 
ground  this  is  done  with  the  common  harrow. 
For  corn  fields  or  for  firmly  packed  soil,  the  shovel 
cultivator  or  disc  harrow  is  employed.  This 


is 


FIG.  20.  —  Sowing  wheat  with  a  press  drill.  Some  press  drills  are  so  made 
that  the  weight  of  the  machine  is  carried  on  the  rear  wheels,  hence  no  side  wheels 
are  necessary. 

followed  by  the  common  tooth  harrow  for  leveling 
the  land. 

Drilling  is  more  general  than  broadcast  sowing 
in  the  great  wheat  districts  of  the  United  States. 

Wheat  drills  are  of  three  agneral  types  :  Hoe 
drills,  shoe  or  runner  drills,  and  disc  drills.  The 


34  THE  WHEAT  INDUSTRY 

hoe  drill  consists  of  a  series  of  small  shovels  which 
open  the  ground  to  permit  a  stream  of  wheat  to  be 
introduced  just  back  of  them  so  that  the  soil 
settles  back  in  place  covering  the  seed.  This 
form  of  drill  is  well  adapted  to  heavy  soils  which 
are  naturally  inclined  to  pack  closely.  For  more 
friable  soils  the  furrow  is  usually  opened  by  means 
of  a  runner  or  disc,  either  single  or  double.  The 
seed  is  introduced  just  behind  the  furrow  opener 
and  the  furrow  is  closed  by  a  wheel  which  follows 
and  compacts  the  soil.  The  pressure  is  applied 
either  by  a  spring  on  the  wheel  or  is  caused  by 
the  weight  of  the  machine  resting  on  the  rear 
wheels  (Fig.  20).  These  machines  are  known 
as  press  drills  and  are  extensively  used  in  the 
districts  of  sandy  or  friable  soils.  They  have 
proved  of  great  value  in  furnishing  carefully  pre- 
pared, compacted  seed  beds  for  a  large  part  of  the 
great  wheat-producing  area  of  the  West.  They 
seem  to  be  the  kind  best  adapted  to  the  soils  in 
which  wheat  thrives  best. 

Time  of  Sowing.  -  -  The  best  time  for  sowing 
wheat  varies  with  so  many  factors  that  it  is 
difficult  to  state  any  general  rule.  For  winter 
wheat  districts,  early  seeding  prevails  in  the 
northern  parts  ;  late,  in  the  southern.  The  sow- 
ing must  be  early  enough  to  give  time  for  a  fairly 
sturdy  growth,  otherwise  the  wheat  is  unable  to 
withstand  winter  hardships.  There  is  also  a  dan- 


CULTIVATION  AND  GROWTH 


35 


ger  of  too  early  seeding  in  that  the  growth  becomes 
so  rank  that  it  lessens  the  powers  of  resistance, 
and,  in  many  cases,  exposes  the  wheat  to  the 
ravages  of  the  Hessian  fly.  Inasmuch  as  the 
proper  growth  is  the  thing  desired,  it  is  readily 
seen  that  the  factors  which  promote  growth  also 
make  late  seeding  possible.  Hence  later  sowing 


Courtesy  International  Harvester  Co. 
FIG.  21.  —  A  large  size  modern  drill. 

can  be  more  profitably  practiced  in  fertile  soils 
than  in  soils  less  fertile ;  in  carefully  prepared 
ground  than  where  poor  seed  bed  is  provided ; 
and  where  moisture  is  ample  than  where  it  is 
somewhat  scarce.  For  the  wheat  belt  in  the 
neighborhood  of  latitude  40°  north  and  from  alti- 
tudes of  500  to  1000  feet,  the  most  favorable 
time  for  sowing  is  from  September  10  to  20. 


36  THE  WHEAT  INDUSTRY 

North  of  that  the  sowing  time  is  earlier ;  to  the 
south  it  is  later,  even  as  late  as  November  in 
some  cases. 

In  general  where  spring  wheat  is  raised,  it  is 
best  to  sow  it  as  early  as  possible.  Seeding  time 
then  necessarily  comes  later  to  the  northward. 
March  sowing  is  not  uncommon  in  Nebraska  and 
Iowa,  and  in  some  of  the  Canadian  provinces 
sowing  is  not  finished  before  May  25.  Though 
these  dates  apply  to  our  own  country,  we  shall 
later  learn  that  seeding  is  going  on  somewhere 
during  every  month  of  the  year. 

Cultivation  after  Sowing.  -  -  Usually  no  culti- 
vation is  necessary.  Man  contributes  his  influ- 
ence in  preparing  the  seed  bed  and  in  planting. 
Once  placed  on  a  secure  footing,  wheat  is  able  to 
overcome  plant  competitors )  and  weeding  is  un- 
necessary. In  that  respect  it  is  stronger  than 
corn,  for  it  covers  the  ground  early  in  its  life 
history.  Harrowing  winter  wheat  in  the  spring 
is  sometimes  tried,  but  the  advantage  of  such 
work  is  problematical.  Where  the  upper  soil  has 
formed  a  hard  crust,  harrowing  may  prove  benefi- 
cial because  it  loosens  the  soil  and  conserves  mois- 
ture. Generally  speaking,  the  injury  to  a  large 
number  of  wheat  plants  must  be  considered  care- 
fully when  we  judge  the  value  of  such  work. 
Where  the  soil  is  very  loose,  rolling  winter  wheat 
in  the  spring  has  been  found  profitable.  Pastur- 


CULTIVATION  AND  GROWTH  37 

ing  winter  wheat  in  very  early  spring  is  also 
claimed  to  help  compact  the  soil  without  injuring 
the  wheat  plant.  This  practice  must  be  carefully 
watched,  however,  so  that  it  is  not  permitted 
when  the  ground  is  too  soft  or  that  it  may  not  be 
continued  too  late  in  the  spring.  As  a  general 
rule  wheat  receives  no  further  labor  after  seeding 
until  time  of  harvest. 

The  Growth  of  Wheat.  -  -  Though  wheat  is  not 
cultivated  after  planting  as  is  corn,  still  it 
receives  much  attention.  In  the  autumn  the 
farmer  watches  its  growth  with  interest.  The 
wheat  comes  up  in  a  week  or  ten  days  after  seed- 
ing if  the  weather  and  soil  conditions  are  favorable. 
Winter  wheat  grows  to  be  a  small  grassy  plant 
before  the  ground  freezes  ;  and  the  fields  viewed 
from  a  distance  appear  green.  If  the  fall  growth 
is  good,  an  extensive  root  system  is  developed  and 
the  plant  will  likely  survive  the  winter.  The 
greatest  danger  lies  in  a  very  dry  autumn,  which 
prevents  the  proper  growth,  or  in  the  presence  of 
the  Hessian  fly.  This  latter  is  a  small  insect 
which  attacks  the  wheat  plant  near  the  base,  caus- 
ing the  leaves  and  stem  to  turn  yellow  and  die. 
While  it  works  some  damage  in  the  autumn,  a 
more  serious  menace  lies  in  the  fact  that  the 
mature  insects  are  developed  at  this  time.  When 
these  insects  infest  the  wheat  field,  there  is  grave 
danger  of  their  becoming  so  numerous  the  next 


38  THE  WHEAT  INDUSTRY 

spring  that  they  will  ruin  the  crop  (see  Figs.  60  and 
61).  Some  farmers  sow  a  "  catch  crop/'  a  strip  of 
early  sowing  around  the  field.  When  this  strip 
has  become  infested  with  the  fly,  the  ground  is 
plowed,  and  in  this  way  the  insect  is  killed.  The 
main  field,  sowed  later,  is  thus  in  a  measure 
protected. 

The  wheat  plant  remains  green  late  into  the 
winter.  Before  spring,  however,  the  older  leaves 
have  turned  brown  and  sometimes  in  late  winter 
the  field  may  show  practically  no  evidence  of  life. 
Then  the  farmer  is  anxious.  He  fears  that  his 
wheat  has  been  winter  killed.  He  probably  ex- 
presses his  fears  to  others.  Reporters  hear  the 
rumors  and  express  the  same  feelings  through 
their  papers.  Soon  the  price  of  wheat  rises  on 
the  market  as  a  result  of  these  "  bear  "  stories. 
In  a  short  time  spring  opens.  The  weather  turns 
warmer,  the  snows  melt,  and  the  rains  come. 
Then  with  a  rapidity  almost  startling  the  brown 
field  changes  to  green.  The  farmer  watches  for 
even  coloring,  for  he  wants  no  bare  spots  in  the 
field.  Sometimes  because  of  insufficient  rainfall 
or  drifting  snow,  parts  of  the  field  will  come 
through  the  winter  better  than  others.  But  with 
favorable  conditions  the  even  stand  which  results 
brings  joy  to  the  farmer's  heart. 

The  winter  crisis  has  passed.  The  spring  growth 
is  well  started.  If  spring  wheat  is  sown,  it  soon 


CULTIVATION  AND  GROWTH  39 

comes  up  and  henceforth  passes  through  the  same 
stages  and  meets  the  same  dangers  as  does  the 
winter  wheat.  In  the  spring  the  farmer  wishes  for 
plenty  of  rain,  for  this  is  the  growing  season. 
He  realizes  that  several  dangers  are  still  to  be 
passed  before  his  crop  can  be  considered  safe. 
Drought  and  hailstorms  are  feared.  Where  irri- 
gation is  practiced  the  water  is  applied  freely, 
and  the  farmer  feels  that  he  has  overcome  the 
greatest  obstacle  to  success  in  that  region.  But, 
since  irrigation  is  more  costly  than  is  natural 
rainfall,  the  expense  of  production  is  higher.  But 
with  favorable  weather  and  moisture  either  by 
rain  or  by  irrigation,  good  growth  is  assured.  The 
field  looks  like  a  well-grassed  meadow.  The 
stems  are  growing  rapidly,  the  wheat  is  soon  ready 
to  'head  out.9  This  is  a  critical  period,  for  a 
year's  crop  is  at  stake.  Do  you  wonder  that,  if 
it  is  becoming  dry,  the  farmer  looks  anxiously 
for  the  rain  clouds  to  appear  ?  He  fears  the  hot 
winds  which  may  come  and  literally  dry  up  his 
wheat  in  the  field.  When  clouds  do  appear  he 
watches  them  intently.  Even  then  the  danger 
is  not  past.  In  many  sections  hailstorms  or 
severe  winds  may  come  which  will  ruin  a  crop  in 
less  than  an  hour.  The  farmer  visits  his  field 
frequently  at  this  time  for  now  it  is  that  the 
Hessian  fly  may  reappear.  He  looks  in  the 
field  for  broken  straws  which  indicate  the  pres- 


40  THE  WHEAT  INDUSTRY 

ence  of  this  pest.  He  examines  many  stalks  at 
the  places  where  the  leaves  join  the  stem.  This 
is  the  favorite  position  for  the  fly  to  get  its  nour- 
ishment from  the  wheat  plant  when  it  is  approach- 
ing the  flaxseed  stage.  If  the  season  is  dry, 
the  chinch  bug  is  also  to  be  feared.  The  losses 
caused  by  the  chinch  bug  to  the  wheat  grow- 
ers of  the  Mississippi  valley  have  in  some  years 
amounted  to  many  millions  of  dollars. 

Fortunately  fairly  effective  methods  of  fighting 
these  pests  have  been  discovered  and  farmers  do 
not  now  feel  as  helpless  as  they  formerly  did. 
These  problems  and  difficulties  must  be  mastered 
by  the  wheat  growers  if  they  are  to  succeed. 
Thus  we  can  readily  see  that  wheat  farmers  must 
be  thinkers,  men  of  brains  as  well  as  men  of  brawn. 

But  the  season  advances.  The  dangers  are 
passed  one  after  another.  Rainfall  has  been 
sufficient.  The  wheat  heads  out.,  passes  through 
its  blossoming  period  unnoticed,  for  it  is  a  self 
fertilizing  plant,  and  finally  forms  the  seeds,  the 
grain,  in  the  heads.  When  they  first  reach  a 
fairly  good  size  they  are  plump  and  soft  and  are 
filled  with  a  milky  fluid.  Then  they  become 
solid,  though  not  hard.  The  plant  loses  its  green 
coloring  and  the  field  changes  slowly  to  lighter 
hues.  At  last  comes  the  golden  yellow  which 
marks  readiness  for  harvest.  The  period  of  growth 
is  ended  and  the  period  of  reaping  is  at  hand.  The 


CULTIVATION  AND  GROWTH  41 

appearance  of  the  field  now  is  difficult  to  picture 
in  words.  The  color  is  rich  golden,  and  the  gentle 
winds  sway  the  stems  into  billows  which  resemble 
those  of  the  sea.  No  more  inspiring  scene  can  be 
found  than  that  offered  by  the  wheat  fields  at 


FIG.  22. —  Alongside  a  wheat  field.     It  is  nearly  ready  for  harvest. 

harvest  time.  For  miles  and  miles,  they  undu- 
late over  hills  and  valleys  or  stretch  out  like  a 
blanket  over  the  level  plains. 

The  farmers  are  happy,  but  they  are  not  alone 
in  their  happiness.     Business  in  general  quickens 


42  THE  WHEAT  INDUSTRY 

with  the  touch  of  prosperity  offered  by  the  assured 
wheat  crop. 

QUESTIONS  AND  EXERCISES 

1.  Why  do  we  speak  of  wheat  as  a  domestic  plant  ? 

2.  Of  what  does  cultivation  of  wheat  consist  ?     Explain 
how  this  is  of  assistance  to  the  plant. 

3 ./What  is  the  purpose  of  plowing? 

4.  Suggest  reasons  why  the   moldboard    plow   is   more 
generally    used    than    the    disc    plow.     Which    is   the   more 
widely  used  in  your  locality  ?     Why  ? 

5.  How  may  the  preparation  of  the  seed  bed  be  accom- 
plished without  plowing  ? 

6.  oAVhat  is  the  purpose  of  harrowing  ? 

7.  Under  what  conditions  is  it  wise  to  harrow  immedi- 
ately after  plowing  ? 

$.  What  methods  of  wheat  sowing  are  in  general  use 
in  your  vicinity  ? 

9.  How  does  the  amount  of  cultivation  given  wheat 
compare  with  that  given  corn  ?  Suggest  reasons  for  this 
difference. 

10.  What  are  the  enemies  and  dangers  encountered  by 
wheat  before  it  is  ready  for  harvest  ? 

11.  Write  a  brief  story  of  the  cultivation  and  growth  of 
wheat  in  your  home  region.     Let  your  story  include  methods 
of  plowing,  harrowing,  sowing,  and  kinds  of  wheat  raised. 


CHAPTER  IV 

/ 

HARFESTING 

The  Methods  of  Harvesting.  -  -  The  harvest 
consists  of  cutting  the  wheat  as  it  stands  in  the 
field  and  bringing  it  together  as  bundles,  shocks, 
or  stacks.  This  still  requires  both  hand  and 
machine  work,  although  the  amount  of  hand 
work  has  been  very  greatly  reduced  by  the  use  of 
modern  machinery.  There  has  been  a  gradual 
development  in  the  methods  of  harvesting  until 
at  present  it  involves  the  use  of  the  most  complex 
agricultural  implements  made.  Primitive  meth- 
ods, however,  are  still  followed  in  some  places. 
Because  of  this  fact,  the  following  machines  are 
all  now  used  in  the  harvest  of  the  world's  wheat 
crop  :  sickle,  cradle,  reaper,  binder,  header,  and 
harvester-thresher  or  "  combine." 

The  Sickle  and  the  Cradle.  -  -  The  sickle  is  used 
in  the  small  fields  of  parts  of  Palestine,  northern 
Spain,  Norway,  on  some  of  the  small  islands  bor- 
dering Great  Britain,  and  in  other  isolated  dis- 
tricts. It  consists  of  a  curved  knife  fastened  to  a 
short  handle  and  resembles  the  small  sickles  used 

43 


44 


THE  WHEAT  INDUSTRY 


in  trimming  corners  of  lawns.  The  laborer  usually 
grasps  a  handful  of  the  wheat  in  his  left  hand  and 
cuts  it  with  the  sickle  held  in  his  right.  The  cut 
wheat  is  then  laid  in  well  arranged  bunches  to  be 
bound  later,  usually  by  women  or  children.  This 
method  is  slow  and  difficult  and  is  now  employed 


Courtesy  International  Harvester  Co. 
FIG.  23.  —  Harvesting  wheat  with  a  sickle. 

only  in  very  remote  places.  The  cradle,  an  imple- 
ment somewhat  less  primitive,  is  used  in  cut-ting 
the  wheat  of  larger  fields  in  the  same  regions 
where  the  sickle  is  in  use,  and  also  in  some  of  the 
more  hilly  sections  of  our  own  country.  It  re- 
sembles a  scythe  but  has  arms  above  the  cutting 


HARVESTING 


45 


edge  to  assist  in  keeping  the  grain  well  arranged. 
Much  skill  is  necessary  in  handling  a  cradle  so 
that  the  swath  may  be  even  and  that  the  grain 
may  be  left  in  bunches  which  can  easily  be  bound 
into  bundles.  Two  or  three  acres  makes  a  hard 


FIG.  24.  —  Harvesting  wheat  with  a  cradle. 

day's  work  for  one  man.  The  most  skillful 
cradler  is  the  harvest  hero  in  communities  where 
the  wheat  cradle  rules.  The  work  of  binding  the 
grain  is  often  done  by  young  boys  or  women. 
The  bunches  are  gathered  and  arranged  into 


THE  WHEAT  INDUSTRY 


bundles  of  a  size  convenient  for  handling,  The 
worker  then  takes  a  handful  of  the  straw,  and, 
by  a  double  turn  movement,  twists  the  heads 
together  and  locks  them.  This  movement  forms 
a  straw  band  nearly  twice  as  long  as  a  single 
wheat  plant.  This  band  is  passed  around  the 
bunch  of  grain  and  drawn  tight.  The  ends  are 
then  twisted  together  and  fastened  by  pushing 

them  under  the  band. 
The  wheat  bundle  thus 
formed  is  called  a  sheaf. 
These  sheaves  are  then 
set  in  groups  called 
shocks  and  are  left 
standing  in  order  to  be- 
come thoroughly  dry. 
Skillful  binders  can 
FIG.  25. -A  hand-bound  wheat  make  beautiful  sheaves. 

sheaf.     Binding   grain    by  hand    is  be-      The      term      Self-binder 

coming  a  lost  art  in  the  wheat  regions.  i  •      i 

later  became  applied  to 

machines  which  did  this  work.  Still  later  the  term 
became  shortened  to  the  binder  as  we  have  it 
now.  Generally  the  only  hand  binding  done  in 
our  country  is  that  of  the  occasional  bundle  which 
the  binder  misses.  For  this  reason  in  the  larger 
wheat  sections  the  hand-bound  sheaves  are  not 
always  perfect  (Fig.  25). 

Modern  Machines.  -  -  Both  the  sickle  and   the 
cradle  have  been  displaced  in  all  but  the  smaller 


HARVESTING  ,  47 

places  by  the  larger  harvesting  machinery.  The 
machines  used  where  wheat  is  produced  in  com- 
mercial quantities  are  the  reaper,  self-binder, 
header,  and  the  combined  harvester-thresher. 
These  have  several  essential  things  in  common. 
In  each,  the  cutting  device  consists  of  a  number 
of  triangular  sections,  two  sides  of  which  are 
ground  to  knife  edge  and  serrated.  These  are 
then  fastened  to  a  bar  in  the  manner  of  saw  teeth. 
This  whole  device  is  known  as  the  grain  sickle. 
This  sickle  moves  rapidly  back  and  forth  through 
stationary  guards  as  the  machine  is  drawn  through 
the  field,  and  the  grain  is  held  against  the  sickle 
by  a  reel  or  set  of  rakes.  As  it  is  cut  the  grain 
falls  upon  the  platform  with  straw  parallel.  The 
power  for  this  work  is  derived  from  the  turning 
of  a  large  wheel,  known  as  the  master  wheel,  on 
which  the  greater  part  of  the  weight  of  the  machine 
rests.  The  sickle  can  be  raised  or  lowered  while 
in  motion  by  a  lever  so  placed  as  to  be  within 
easy  reach  of  the  driver.  The  swath  to  be  cut  is 
separated  from  the  remainder  of  the  field  by 
a  grain  point  so  that  no  grain  is  run  down  or 
broken. 

The  above  outlined  essentials  are  common  to 
all  grain-harvesting  machines.  Marked  differ- 
ences are  found,  however,  in  working  out  the 
details  of  their  operation. 

The   Reaper.  -  -  This  term  is  used  to  define  a 


48 


THE  WHEAT  INDUSTRY 


harvesting  machine  which  cuts  the  grain,  gathers 
it  into  loose  bunches  which  can  be  dropped  in 
cross  rows  called  windrows.  In  some  cases  these 
bunches  are  bound  by  hand,  in  others  they  are 
stacked  without  binding.  The  machine  is  quite 
light,  cuts  a  swath  about  four  and  a  half  feet  wide, 


FIG.  26.  —  Harvesting  wheat  with  a  reaper. 

and  is  pulled  by  two  or  three  horses.  The  size  of 
the  machine  and  its  light  weight  make  it  well 
adapted  to  fields  of  small  size,  of  irregular  shape, 
or  of  steep  slope.  Hence  the  use  of  the  reaper  as 
a  wheat-harvesting  machine  is  limited  in  this 
country  to  the  hilly  lands  of  the  Eastern  states. 
In  the  wheat  harvest  of  the  central  plains  or  the 


HARVESTING  49 

Western  states,  where  the  fields  are  large  and  the 
topography  gentle,  very  few  reapers  are  in  use. 

The  Binder. --By  far  the  greater  part  of  all 
small  grain,  including  wheat,  is  harvested  by  the 
self-binder.  The  grain  is  held  against  the  cutter 
bar  by  means  of  a  reel  whose  motion  deposits  the 
cut  grain  on  the  platform  canvas  by  which  it  is 
conveyed  to  the  elevator.  The  elevator,  consist- 
ing of  two  endless  canvases,  one  above  the  other, 
carries  the  grain  between  them  and  deposits  it  on 
the  opposite  side  of  the  master  wheel,  where  it  is 
caught  by  steel-arm  packers,  made  into  a  trim 
bundle,  and  bound  with  twine. 

The  twine  used  is  a  coarse  twisted  cord  made 
from  the  fiber  of  hemp,  flax,  or  sisal.  The  hemp 
twine  is  more  extensively  used  than  that  made 
from  any  other  material.  The  cost  of  the  twine 
is  from  ten  to  twelve  cents  per  pound  and  it  takes 
about  one  pound  of  twine  for  each  ten  bushels 
yield  although  this  varies  with  seasons.  The 
binding  apparatus  operates  as  soon  as  released  by 
the  pressure  of  the  bundle  against  a  trip.  Hence 
the  size  of  the  bundle  may  be  regulated  by  increas- 
ing or  decreasing  the  amount  of  pressure  required 
to  trip  the  binder.  The  knotter  is  one  of  the  most 
ingenious  devices  imaginable.  It  makes  a  knot 
which  is  very  difficult  to  untie.  As  soon  as  the 
bundle  is  tied,  a  knife  cuts  the  twine,  the  bundle 
is  thrown  out  by  a  couple  of  iron  arms  known  as 


50  THE  WHEAT  INDUSTRY 


FIG.  27. —  Harvesting  wheat  with  a  binder  (front  view). 


FIG.  28.  —  Harvesting  wheat  with  a  binder  (rear  view). 


HARVESTING 


kickers  and  is  deposited  on  a  bundle  carrier 
fastened  low  at  the  side  of  the  machine.  The 
carrier  can  hold  four  or  five  bundles  and  is  oper- 
ated by  the  driver,  who  with  his  foot  handles  it 
so  as  to  dump  the  bundles  into  rows  for  conven- 
ience in  shocking. 

Binders  are  made  in  different  sizes,  usually 
cutting  swaths  six,  seven,  or  eight  feet  wide.  The 
smaller  machines  are 
drawn  by  three  horses,  the 
larger  ones  by  four  or  five. 
In  some  cases  a  gasoline 
engine  which  does  the 
work  of  operating  the  ma- 
chinery is  attached  at  the 
rear  part  of  the  binder. 
In  this  case  the  horses 
merely  pull  the  machine 
over  the  field.  This  is 
especially  advantageous  when  the  ground  is  so  soft 
that  it  is  difficult  for  the  drive  wheel  to  secure 
footing.  The  driver  occupies  a  seat  well  back  on 
the  machine  where  he  can  watch  all  the  working 
parts,  and  at  the  same  time  keep  the  horses  moving 
at  a  uniform  gait.  After  the  grain  is  cut  and  bound, 
it  is  shocked.  This  is  usually  done  immediately 
by  one  or  two  men  whose  work  is  to  follow  the 
binder.  The  bundles  are  set  heads  up  in  pairs  or 
in  round  shocks.  There  are  usually  ten  to  twenty 


FIG.  29.  —  A  wheat  sheaf  bound  by 
a  self-binder. 


52  THE  WHEAT  INDUSTRY 

bundles  in  a  shock.  Where  rain  is  frequent  and 
winds  are  not  strong,  one  or  two  bundles  are 
placed  on  top  of  the  shock  as  cap  sheaves.  This 
is  not  generally  followed  in  the  West  because  rains 
are  not  so  likely  to  occur  and  there  is  more  wind. 
There  cap  sheaves  are  very  likely  to  be  blown 
from  the  shock. 


FIG.    30.  —  A    "windrow"    of    unshocked   bundles.      Shocks   are    shown   in    the 

distance. 

The  binder  is  adapted  to  a  greater  variety  of 
conditions  than  other  harvesters  and  it  is  also  the 
machine  best  adapted  to  conditions  prevalent  in 
the  wheat-growing  regions.  This  accounts  for 
its  wide  use.  A  binder  costs  the  farmer  from  $140 
to  $160  completely  equipped,  and,  if  properly 
cared  for,  should  last  ten  years  or  longer.  Many 


HARVESTING  S3 

machines,  however,  due  to  excessive  use  or  careless 
handling,  last  only  from  three  to  five  years.  Dif- 
ferent makes  of  binders  vary  in  details  ;  some 
have  minor  advantages  ;  but  all  are  pretty  well 
standardized  in  essentials. 

After  the  grain  is  shocked  it  is  left  standing  in 


FIG.  31.  — Beginning  the  shock. 

the  field  until  it  is  thoroughly  dry.     It  is  then 
either  stacked  or  threshed. 

The  Header.  -  -  Very  different  from  the  above 
is  the  header.  Like  the  reaper,  it  delivers  the 
grain  unbound,  but  it  neither  bunches  nor  keeps 
it  suitably  arranged  for  binding,  as  does  the 
former  machine.  The  header  cuts  a  swath,  usu- 
ally ten  or  twelve  feet  in  width,  and  is  moved  by 


54  THE  WHEAT  INDUSTRY 

the  power  of  four  or  six  horses  applied  at  the  rear 
of  the  machine.  The  back  part  of  the  machine, 
where  the  driver  stands,  is  supported  by  a  wheel 
which  can  be  turned  by  him  at  will.  Thus  he 
steers  the  course  of  the  header  through  the  field 
much  as  a  pilot  steers  a  boat  by  means  of  the 

rudder.  The 
grain  is  cut  to 
leave  a  high  stub- 
ble in  order  that 
there  will  be  no 
more  straw  than 
is  necessary  to 
handle.  This 
tendency  to  clip 
the  heads  of  the 
wheat  has  given 
the  name  to  the 
machine. 

FIG.    32.  —  Boys    sometimes    assist    in    shocking  \Vhpn     Cllt      the 

grain    falls    upon 

a  moving  platform  canvas  which  conveys  it  to 
the  spout  where  it  is  caught  between  the  upper 
and  lower  elevator  canvases.  By  these  it  is  de- 
livered to  a  specially  prepared  rack.  This  rack, 
unlike  a  hayrack,  is  usually  boarded  solid,  with 
one  side  much  lower  than  the  other.  This  is 
known  as  a  header  box.  The  header  box  drawn 
by  a  team  is  kept  even  with  the  header ;  and 


HARVESTING  55 

the  grain  is  cared  for  by  a  man  known  as  the 
loader,  who  later  pitches  the  grain  into  the  stack. 
The  racks  or  header  boxes  are  often  driven  by 
young  boys,  since  there  is  no  hard  work  involved. 
In  some  cases  the  grain  is  then  unloaded  into 
small  bunches  or  shocks  but  generally  it  is  at 


FIG.  33.  —  The   completed   shock.     A    typical    illustration    of    the  round  shocks 
without  cap  sheaves. 

once  made  into  rectangular  shaped  stacks.  These 
stacks  are  from  16  to  48  feet  long  and  two  or 
four  of  them  in  a  group  are  known  as  a  setting. 
In  some  cases  where  the  wheat  is  very  dry  it  is 
threshed  directly  from  the  header  box.  This  re- 
quires four  or  six  headers  at  work  in  the  same  field. 
The  use  of  the  header  in  harvesting  is  rapid 


56  THE  WHEAT  INDUSTRY 

and  involves  a  minimum  of  hard  labor.  It  is 
practical,  however,  only  where  the  grain  can  be 
allowed  to  stand  until  dead  ripe,  where  it  ripens 
evenly  and  is  free  from  weeds,  and  where  rainless 
harvests  are  expected.  It  is  a  method  employed 
extensively  in  regions  where  wheat  grows  so  short 
that  binding  is  impossible.  This  condition  we 
find  frequently  occurring  in  parts  of  the  western 
Great  Plains. 

The  Combined  Harvester-  Thresher..  —  In  the  ex- 
tensive Sacramento  valley  of  California  and  on 
the  plains  of  Washington  and  Oregon,  a  thresher 
is  combined  with  the  header  or  binder  into  one 
machine.  The  machine  cuts  a  wider  swath,  18  to 
30  feet,  and  the  cut  wheat  is  elevated  into  the 
front  end  of  the  threshing  mechanism.  This 
combined  machine  is  pulled  by  28  to  36  horses  or 
mules,  or  by  a  large  tractor  engine.  The  straw 
is  scattered  over  the  field  and  the  grain  is  put  up 
in  bags.  From  four  to  six  men  constitute  a  work- 
ing gang,  and  an  outfit  can  cut,  thresh,  and  bag 
from  500  to  more  than  1000  bushels  per  day. 

These  machines,  called  combines,  are  adapted 
only  to  districts  which  are  free  from  harvest  rains, 
and  in  which  fields  are  large.  In  some  of  the 
regions  mentioned  they  are  gradually  disappearing 
because  the  extensive  wheat  ranches  are  being 
divided  into  smaller  units  and  farming  is  becoming 
more  intensive. 


HARVESTING 


57 


Stacking  the  Wheat.  -  -  Throughout  the  more 
humid  wheat-growing  districts,  much  of  the 
wheat  is  stacked  before  threshing.  This  is  be- 
cause it  has  not  been  considered  economical  to 
have  machines  enough  in  the  community  to 
thresh  all  the  wheat  promptly  when  dry.  So 


FIG.  34.  —  Loading  wheat  bundles  into  the  rack  to  be  hauled  to  the  stack. 

while  some  thresh  out  of  shock,  many  others  stack 
their  grain  rather  than  to  wait  several  days  or 
weeks  for  a  threshing  machine.  They  know  that 
during  this  wait  their  yield  may  be  impaired  both 
in  quantity  and  quality  by  rain. 

The  stacks  are  made  by  arranging  the  bundles 
so  as  to  protect  the  heads  and  shed  the  rain. 
Hence  in  stacking,  the  butts  of  the  bundles  are 


58  THE  WHEAT  INDUSTRY 

placed  outward  and  the  central  part  of  the  stack 
kept  high.  This  gives  the  straw  an  outward  and 
downward  slant.  The  shape  of  the  stack  may  be 
round  or  rectangular  and  it  is  made  as  high  as  a 
man  can  conveniently  pitch  the  bundles  from  a 
rack,  usually  24  to  30  feet.  Stacking  is  hard 
work  both  for  the  one  who  pitches  the  bundles 


FIG.  35.  —  Stacking  wheat  in  the  field. 

and  for  the  stacker.  The  straw  is  dry,  usually 
the  sky  is  cloudless,  and  the  air  quite  calm.  With 
the  thermometer  standing  between  90  and  100 
degrees  in  the  shade  the  worker  is  likely  to  feel 
that  shock  threshing  after  all  would  have  been 
preferable.  But  when  after  a  few  days  a  heavy 
rain  falls,  he  realizes  that  his  grain  in  the  stack  is 
much  better  protected  than  that  of  his  neighbor 
who  left  his  in  shock  waiting  for  the  thresher. 


HARVESTING 


59 


Shocks  standing  in  the  field  for  a  considerable  time 
are  likely  to  suffer  from  wind  and  rain.  Sheaves 
which  have  been  blown  down  and  are  left  lying  on 
the  ground,  if  rained  upon  do  not  dry  out  promptly. 
The  wheat  kernels  are  then  likely  to  sprout  and 
become  damaged.  Prolonged  wet  weather  may 


FIG.    36.  —  Stacking   wheat    in    the   farmyard.       Pitching   bundles    to    the    top 
of  a  nearly  finished  stack  is  hard  work. 

even  cause  the  wheat  to  sprout  in  the  shock,  which 
injures  it  both  in  weight  and  quality.  Prompt 
stacking  thus  protects  against  exposure  and  re- 
sulting losses.  Many  farmers  even  claim  that 
stacked  grain  improves  in  quality. 

Soon  after  being  stacked  the  wheat  goes  into 


60  THE  WHEAT  INDUSTRY 

sweat,  a  moist  condition  which  dries  out  in 
the  course  of  three  or  four  weeks.  Grain  thus 
cured  is  less  likely  to  suffer  or  spoil  in  storage. 

The  Date  of  Harvesting.  -  -  In  most  places  wheat 
is  cut  as  soon  as  it  is  ripe  or  nearly  ripe.  The 
proper  time  is  usually  considered  to  be  when  the 
wheat  grain  is  hard  enough  not  to  be  crushed 


FIG.    37.  —  A   shock   after  standing  in  the  field   for   several   weeks.     Note   the 
bundles  that  have  been  blown  down. 

between  the  fingers,  yet  may  be  indented  by  the 
thumb  nail.  Generally  the  culm  is  still  a  little 
green  and  not  thoroughly  dry.  This  time  marks 
the  opening  of  vigorous  activities,  for  the  grower 
is  anxious  to  have  his  grain  in  the  sheaf  or  stack 
as  soon  as  the  work  can  be  done  without  injury 
to  the  grain.  If  it  is  allowed  to  become  overripe 
there  is  thought  to  be  some  slight  loss  in  weight, 


HARVESTING 


61 


and  there  is  undoubtedly  considerable  loss  from 
shattering  and  spilling  in  the  field.  There  is  also 
prolonged  danger  of  loss  due  to  storms.  Hence, 
when  once  started  in  a  given  field,  the  work  of 
harvesting  continues  with  but  little  interruption 
until  completed.  Holidays  are  forgotten  and  long 


FIG.  38.  —  In  some  places  it  is  customary  to  bring  lunch  to  the  harvest  workers. 

hours  are  observed,  fourteen  working  hours  a  day 
being  common.  Where  the  harvest  comes  early 
in  July,  Fourth  of  July  celebrations  are  neglected 
or  limited  to  evening  festivities.  Many  people 
even  work  Sundays,  regarding  the  wheat  harvest 
as  a  type  of  necessary  labor  that  can  be  performed 
without  breaking  the  spirit  of  the  Sabbath. 

In  those  sections  where  the  season  is  rainless, 


62  THE  WHEAT  INDUSTRY 

as  in  parts  of  California  and  Spain,  the  harvest  is 
prolonged  and  not  marked  by  any  great  haste. 
Since  the  kind  of  wheat  grown,  club  type,  does 
not  shatter  nor  lodge  readily,  it  is  allowed  to  stand 
for  weeks  after  ripening.  The  grower  in  such 
places  takes  holidays  at  his  pleasure  and  is  not 
worried  over  possible  losses.  Needless  to  add, 
there  festal  occasions  and  Sundays  are  diligently 
observed. 

Wheat  is  being  harvested  somewhere  all  the 
time.  The  United  States  Crop  Reporter  presents 
the  following  interesting  table,  which  shows  the 
time  succession  in  the  harvest  of  the  world's 
wheat  crop.  Note  where  your  state  belongs  and 
what  countries  harvest  at  the  same  time.  Also 
note  where  the  harvest  is  in  full  swing  at  the 
time  you  are  reading  this. 

January:    Chile,  New  Zealand,  Australia. 

February  and  March:    Upper  Egypt,  India. 

April:  Lower  Egypt,  India,  Persia,  Asia  Minor,  Cuba, 
Mexico. 

May:   Texas,  Algeria,  Morocco,  China,  Japan. 

June:  California,  Utah,  Oklahoma,  Kansas,  Arkansas, 
Missouri,  Mississippi,  Alabama,  Georgia,  South  Carolina, 
North  Carolina,  Virginia,  Kentucky,  Tennessee,  Spain, 
Southern  France,  Italy,  Greece,  and  Turkey. 

July:  Washington,  Oregon,  Wyoming,  Nebraska,  Iowa, 
Southern  Minnesota,  Wisconsin,  Michigan,  Illinois,  In- 
diana, Ohio,  Pennsylvania,  New  York,  New  England, 
Southern  England,  Germany,  Southern  Russia. 


HARVESTING  63 

August:  Montana,  the  Dakotas,  Central  and  Northern 
Minnesota,  Canada,  England,  Belgium,  Netherlands, 
Central  Russia. 

September  and  October:  Parts  of  Western  Canada,  Scotland, 
Scandinavia,  Northern  Russia. 

November:    South  Africa,  Peru,  Northern  Argentina. 

December:    New  South  Wales,  Burmah,  Argentina. 

Thus  it  is  seen  that  the  wheat  harvest  in  the 
United  States  begins  in  Texas  in  May  and  ends 
in  the  Dakotas  in  August.  All  through  this 
season  the  hum  of  the  harvester  measures  pros- 
perity to  a  great  section  of  our  country.  For  as 
soon  as  the  wheat  is  cut  it  can  be  used  as  the  basis 
of  credit.  Money  can  be  secured  by  loans  if  the 
owner  does  not  care  to  sell.  When  the  wheat  is 
cut,  the  income  from  it  is  fairly  certain,  as  there 
is  then  but  slight  chance  of  failure  to  secure  the 
grain,  the  wheat  of  commerce.  Only  one  great 
process  in  production  remains  to  be  accomplished. 
It  is  that  of  threshing. 

QUESTIONS  AND  EXERCISES 

1.  Suggest  conditions  in  which  sickles  or  cradles  would 
be  the  tools  best  adapted  to  the  wheat  harvest. 

2.  What   are   the   essential   parts    common   to   different 
harvesting  machines  ? 

3.  To  what  wheat   field   conditions   is   the   reaper  well 
adapted  ? 

4.  How  did  the  term  binder  come  to  be  applied  to  the 
machine  of  that  name  ? 


64  THE  WHEAT  INDUSTRY 

5.  What  makes  of  binders  are  in  favor  in  your  locality  ? 
Where   are  they   manufactured  ?     If  several   makes   are   in 
use,  it  is  interesting  to  study  how  they  differ. 

6.  Why  are  wheat  bundles  shocked  ? 

7.  By  inquiry  try  to  learn  how  many  acres  one  man 
can  shock  in  a  day.     What  wages  are  generally  paid  for  this 
work  ? 

8.  What  are  the  essential  differences  between  a  binder 
and  a  header  ? 

9.  What  is  the  advantage  of  leaving  a  high  stubble  in 
cutting  wheat  ? 

10.  Why    are    combines    used    so    extensively    in    parts 
of  California,  Oregon,  and  Washington  ? 

11.  Discuss  the  advantages  and  disadvantages  of  stack- 
ing wheat.     Is  this  plan  generally  practiced  in  your  part  of 
the  country  ? 

12.  (a)  Why   does   the   harvest   occur   in   Argentina   in 
December  and  January  ? 

(b)   Explain  why  the  wheat  harvest  occurs  in  Texas 
in  early  June,  and  in  Canada  it  occurs  in  August. 

13.  What   rainfall   conditions   are   preferable  during  the 
harvest  season  ?     Why  ? 

14.  If  you  live  in  a  wheat-growing  locality,  endeavor  to 
determine  the  cost   per  acre  of  harvesting.     This  will,  of 
course,  involve  the  cutting,  twine,  shocking,  and  stacking. 


CHAPTER   V 
THRESHING 

The  Methods  of  Threshing.  -  -  The  purpose  in 
threshing  is  to  separate  the  grain  from  the  straw. 
The  wheat  of  the  harvest  is  left,  as  we  have  learned, 
either  loose  or  bound.  If  the  binder  is  used,  the 
bundles  are  in  shocks  or  in  stacks  ;  if  the  header 
is  used,  the  product  is  stacked  without  binding. 
In  either  case  the  grain  is  still  in  the  heads,  with 
each  kernel  wrapped  in  its  glumes.  The  harvest 
product  is  largely  straw  as  to  bulk.  Several  dis- 
tinct processes  are  involved  in  obtaining  the 
grain,  but  they  are  all  included  under  the  name 
threshing.  The  products  of  threshing  are  the 
wheat  grain  and  the  straw.  The  latter  consists 
of  the  stems,  leaves,  and  the  chaff  which  is  made 
up  of  glumes,  beards,  and  small  bits  of  other  parts 
of  the  plant.  The  work  of  separating  these 
products  is  accomplished  in  several  ways  as  we 
are  to  learn. 

Primitive  Methods.  -  -  When  man  first  began  to 
use  wheat  he  probably  extracted  the  kernels  by 
hand,  rubbing  or  crushing  the  heads  between  his 

F  65 


66  THE  WHEAT  INDUSTRY 

palms  or  fingers,  and  blowing  away  the  light  fine 
stuff,  the  chaff.  From  the  suggestions  afforded 
by  this  very  primitive  method  grew  the  use  of 
sticks  to  beat  the  grain  out  of  the  heads  and  the 
use  of  the  wind  to  carry  away  the  chaff.  This 
method  is  still  preserved  to  us  in  some  places  by 
the  use  of  the  flail. 


FIG.  39.  —  Threshing  with  a  flail. 

The  Flail.  -  -  The  flail  consists  of  a  short  strong 
stick,  used  as  a  handle,  to  which  another  heavy 
stick  is  fastened  by  means  of  a  piece  of  strong 
rawhide  or  rope.  Striking  a  bunch  of  wheat  with 
this  device  shatters  the  spikes  and  causes  the 
grain  to  sift  through  to  the  floor.  The  chaff  is 
removed  by  dropping  the  mixed  grain  and  chaff 
in  a  draft  of  wind.  Threshing  by  this  method  is 


THRESHING  67 

hard,  tedious  labor.  Eight  to  ten  bushels  is 
considered  a  good  day's  work.  It  is  used  only  in 
places  remote  from  trade  routes,  where  fields  are 
small  and  civilization  is  not  very  complex. 


FIG.  40.  —  The  threshing  floor. 


The  Threshing  Floor.  -  -  The  simplest  form  of 
power  threshing  is  where  the  wheat  is  spread  over 
the  hard  ground  or  upon  a  board  or  stone  floor 


68  THE  WHEAT  INDUSTRY 

specially  prepared  for  the  purpose,  and  cattle  or 
mules  are  driven  over  it.  The  hoofs  of  the  ani- 
mals crush  out  the  grain  by  repeatedly  stepping 
on  the  heads.  In  some  cases  a  crude  sled  is 
dragged  over  the  wheat  in  order  to  assist  in  the 
shattering  process.  By  means  of  the  hands  or  a 
fork,  the  mixed  straw,  chaff,  and  grain  are  then 
thrown  into  the  air  when  a  breeze  is  blowing. 
The  separation  is  accomplished  by  the  settling 
of  the  heavy  grain  first  and  by  the  blowing  a  little 
farther  on  of  the  lighter  parts.  This  method  is 
called  winnowing  and  is  used  extensively  in  Asia 
Minor,  in  parts  of  Palestine  and  Egypt,  and  to  some 
extent  in  many  other  countries.  Although  this 
method  is  faster  and  less  laborious  than  the  flail, 
it  is  too  slow  and  takes  too  much  hand  labor  to 
compete  with  modern  methods.  For  this  reason 
it  is  not  adapted  to  the  needs  of  extensive  wheat- 
growing  regions. 

The  Thresher.  -  -  The  principle  of  the  modern 
threshing  machine  is  the  same  as  that  of  the  early 
types  just  described.  Its  function  is  to  shatter 
the  spike  and  separate  the  wheat  grain  from 
the  straw  and  chaff.  Machines  of  this  type 
were  not  introduced  until  1800  and  did  not 
come  into  general  use  in  our  country  until  about 
1840. 

The  modern  thresher  has  added  several  attach- 
ments so  that  now  the  complete  machine  consists 


THRESHING  69 

of  a  self-feeder,  band  cutter,  thresher,  separator, 
straw  stacker,  grain  elevator,  and  weigher. 

The  sheaves  are  pitched  upon  the  self-feeder ; 
and  this  carries  them  to  the  band  cutters  which 
cut  the  twine,  and  thence  to  the  shakers  which 
loosen  the  straw  and  feed  it  into  the  cylinder. 
There  the  straw  passes  between  the  rapidly  ro- 
tating cylinder  and  the  stationary  concave,  which 


FIG.  41.  —  General  view  of  threshing  out  of  shock. 

are  both  set  with  teeth.  These  teeth  thoroughly 
shatter  the  spikes  and  loosen  the  grain.  When 
it  has  passed  the  cylinder,  the  straw  is  pounded 
by  a  set  of  beaters  which  shake  it  up.  It  then 
hits  a  deflecting  board  or  canvas  causing  it  to 
fall  upon  a  set  of  slatted  racks.  These  racks 
have  a  violent  motion  up  and  down  as  well  as 
back  and  forth.  This  work  is  to  shake  the  straw 
thoroughly  free  from  the  grain  and  conduct  it  to 
the  rear  of  the  machine.  Here  it  is  caught  by 


THE  WHEAT  INDUSTRY 


the  stacker  and 
conducted 
away .  The 
grain  falls  part 
through  the 
grates  below 
the  cylinder 
and  part  be- 
tween the  slats 
of  the  racks, 
upon  the  vi- 
brating grain 
board  which 
slants  toward 
the  rear  of  the 
machine. 
o  Along  this 
grain  board  it 
slides  to  the 
sieves,  which 
hold  back  the 
coarser  parts 
and  let  the 
grain  and  fine 
particles 
through.  In 
being  sifted, 
the  grain 
passes  through 


THRESHING  71 

a  strong  draft  produced  by  a  rotating  fan  situated 
below  the  grain  board.  This  draft  blows  the  chaffy 
material  to  the  back  part  of  the  machine  into  the 
stacker.  Some  of  the  grains  which  have  not  been 
entirely  freed  of  the  glumes  (chaff)  will  not  pass 
through  the  sieve  and  are  also  too  heavy  to  be 
blown  into  the  stacker.  To  avoid  losing  these,  a 
trough  is  provided  which  catches  and  discharges 
them  into  a  tailings  elevator  by  which  they  are 
carried  to  the  front  end  of  the  machine  and  are 
sent  through  a  second  time.  The  grain,  rid  of 
impurities  by  sifting  and  fanning,  is  collected  into 
a  trough  and  discharged  into  an  elevator.  This 
elevator  carries  it  to  a  weigher  at  the  top  of  the 
machine  which  weighs  and  registers,  then  dumps 
it  into  wagons  or  bags.  The  stacker,  which  was 
mentioned  as  the  device  which  carries  the  straw 
from  the  machine,  may  be  a  belt  elevator.  It  is 
more  usually,  however,  a  '  blower "  or  wind 
stacker,  a  tube  through  which  the  straw  is  blown 
by  a  strong  current  of  air  produced  by  a  fan  at 
the  base.  Where  the  blower  is  used,  it  can  be  so 
swung  about  from  time  to  time  that  the  straw  can 
be  built  into*fairly  good  stacks  without  manual 
labor  on  the  straw  stack.  Where  the  belt  elevator 
is  used,  two  or  more  men  are  needed  to  take  care 
of  the  straw.  The  larger  machines  now  use  the 
blower  almost  exclusively. 

The  sizes  and  capacities  of  threshers  vary  in 


72  THE  WHEAT  INDUSTRY 

different  sections  of  the  country.  Large  fields 
make  big  machinery  profitable.  Where  fields 
are  small  the  machinery  is  also  small.  The 
width  of  the  cylinder  is  always  much  less  than 
that  of  the  separator  behind  it.  This  is  a  neces- 
sary arrangement,  for  much  space  must  be  pro- 


FIG.  43.  —  A  typical  four-stack  setting  ready  to  thresh. 

vided  if  the  straw  is  to  be  shaken  thoroughly  and 
thus  rid  of  all  its  grain.  Cylinders  vary  in  width 
from  1 8  to  42  inches.  The  width  of 'corresponding 
separators  is  36  to  70  inches,  respectively. 

The  Power  Thresher. --In  the  early  threshers, 
attempts  were  made  to  use  water  power  as  the 
motive  force.  This  did  not  prove  successful, 
chiefly  because  such  machines  could  not  be  lo- 


THRESHING  73 

cated  conveniently  for  the  fields.  Hence  the 
necessity  for  a  portable  thresher  became  evident. 
Horse  power  soon  came  into  use,  and  machines 
were  built  in  such  a  way  that  they  might  be 
moved  from  field  to  field.  Treadmill  horse  pow- 
ers were  used  at  first,  but  they  soon  gave  way  to 
the  sweep  powers  which  still  are  rather  common 
in  some  regions.  The  sweep  powers  used  in 


FIG.  44.  —  Some  farmers  prefer  to  make  rectangular  stacks. 

threshing  are  usually  built  for  eight  or  ten  horses, 
but  both  smaller  and  larger  sizes  are  in  use.  The 
horses  are  hitched  two  abreast  and  one  driver 
attempts  to  keep  them  all  going  at  an  even  and 
uniform  gait.  Since  the  farmers  furnish  most  of 
the  horses  used  on  the  power,  the  driver  seldom 
has  a  trained  set  to  handle ;  and  uniformly  cor- 
rect speed  is  therefore  almost  impossible.  Another 
objection  to  this  source  of  power  is  that  since  the 
threshing  is  largely  done  during  the  hot  months 


74  THE  WHEAT  INDUSTRY 

the  horses  soon  become  warm  and  tired.  It  is 
easily  seen  that  horse  power  can  not  hold  its 
place  in  competition  with  the  steam  engine. 

The  most  generally  used  power  for  wheat 
threshing  is  now  furnished  by  steam  traction 
engines.  These  are  built  in  sizes  ranging  from 
six  to  sixty  horse  power.  They  use  straw,  wood, 


FIG.  45.  —  Pitching  bundles  into  self-feeder  on  the  threshing  machine. 

or  coal  as  fuel,  coal  being  by  far  most  common. 
The  advantages  of  the  traction  engine  are :  de- 
pendability for  long  hours  of  continuous  oper- 
ation ;  the  readiness  with  which  the  proper  rate 
of  motion  may  be  maintained  ;  economy,  - —  it 
being  a  cheaper  source  of  power  than  horses  ;  and 
its  adaptability  to  quick  change  of  location. 
Often  it  requires  not  more  than  five  or  ten  min- 


THRESHING  75 

utes  for  a  large  steam  threshing  outfit  to  be  pulled 
up  and  set  in  a  new  location. 

Tractors  which  burn  kerosene  or  gasoline  have 
also  come  into  general  use  in  many  places,  especially 
where  they  are  used  for  other  farming  activities. 
In  some  places  the  same  gas  tractor  is  used  in 
plowing,  seeding,  cutting,  threshing,  and  hauling 


FIG.  46.  —  The  steam  traction  engine.     Power  for  operating  threshers  is  furnished 
also  by  horses  and  by  engines,  but  steam  tractors  are  the  most  common. 

the  wheat  to  market.  This,  however,  represents 
the  extreme  usage  of  the  gas  engine  in  the  wheat- 
producing  industry  and  is  not  typical  in  many 
countries.  The  horse  is  still  the  most  generally 
used  power  in  all  but  the  threshing  operation. 

The  Rate  of  Work.  -  -  With  the  smaller  threshers, 
500  bushels  per  day  is  considered  a  fair  day's 
output.  With  moderate  size  machines  2000  bush- 


THE  WHEAT  INDUSTRY 


els  per  day,  and  with  the  largest  size  4000  bushels 
per  day,  are  not  unusual.  These  figures  are  for  the 
outfits  that  make  threshing  a  business  during  the 
season.  In  some  districts  there  are  individually 
owned  machines  with  capacities  of  only  200  or 

300  bushels  per 
day,  but  they 
have  not  met 
with  much  favor 
in  the  wheat 
countries  of  the 
New  World.  In 
some  European 
countries,  espe- 
cially France 
and  Germany, 
the  smaller  out- 

FIG.  47.  —  The  straw  stack  as  built  by  the  wind-  fits  are  widely 
stacker  or  blower.  It  is  well  named,  the  strawpile.  .  —,, 

used.  I  hey  in- 
volve more  hand  labor  than  the  larger  threshers, 
inasmuch  as  they  are  not  supplied  with  automatic 
band  cutters,  feeders,  grain  weighers,  and  elevators, 
or  straw  stackers.  All  this  work  must  therefore 
be  done  by  hand.  Where  labor  is  cheap  and 
plentiful,  this  is  not  a  serious  objection ;  but 
where  labor  is  high,  and  sometimes  almost  im- 
possible to  obtain  at  the  season  of  the  year 
when  most  needed,  it  gives  to  the  automatic  de- 
vice a  decided  advantage. 


THRESHING  77 

The  Time  of  Threshing.  —  The  time  of  thresh- 
ing, like  that  of  mode  of  harvesting,  is  directly 
related  to  prevalent  rainfall  conditions  of  the 
respective  districts.  In  regions  subject  to  fre- 
quent rains  during  the  harvest  season,  only  a 
small  part  of  the  wheat  is  threshed  out  of  the 
shock,  most  of  it  being  stacked  as  soon  as  dry 
enough  and  threshed  at  opportune  times  later  in 


FIG.  48.  — A  steam  tractor  threshing  outfit  pulling  into  a  field. 

the  autumn.  Sometimes  it  is  not  threshed  until 
late  in  the  winter.  This  method  of  threshing  from 
the  stack  rather  than  from  the  shock  is  the  one 
preferred  because  wheat  can  be  stacked  when  it 
is  too  damp  to  be  threshed.  Another  reason  is 
that  stack-cured  wheat  is  not  likely  to  suffer 
injury  in  storage,  while  wheat  threshed  out  of 
shock  must  be  very  dry  if  it  is  to  be  safely  kept. 
Wheat  goes  into  sweat  from  3  to  7  days  after 


78  THE  WHEAT  INDUSTRY 

stacking  and  usually  does  not  become  thoroughly 
dry  again  until  about  four  weeks  have  passed. 
It  is  not  advisable  to  thresh  during  this  period  as 
too  much  grain  is  lost  in  the  straw.  Grain  threshed 
at  this  time  is  also  not  well  fitted  for  bin  storage. 
As  soon  as  the  wheat  is  out  of  the  sweat,  it  is 
ready  for  threshing ;  it  can,  however,  remain  in 
the  stack  without  injury  until  the  winter  is  well 
advanced.  The  actual  time  of  threshing  will 
then  depend  largely  on  the  conditions  of  weather, 
roads,  and  markets,  as  well  as  on  the  farmer's 
convenience  and  the  community  practice.  A 
farmer  rarely  likes  to  be  the  only  one  in  a  com- 
munity whose  wheat  is  not  threshed. 

Where  the  harvest  season  is  fairly  free  from 
rain  and  the  wheat  is  bound,  threshing  out  of 
shock  is  the  general  practice.  In  such  regions, 
large  machines  are  popular,  for  all  are  anxious  to 
have  the  jobs  finished  as  quickly  as  possible. 
Then  threshing  begins  about  a  week  after  the 
wheat  is  cut  and  the  end  of  the  cutting  period 
usually  marks  the  beginning  of  the  threshing 
season.  That  is  the  season  of  early  rising.  The 
shrill  blast  of  the  steam  engine  whistle  at  four 
o'clock  in  the  morning  wakens  the  farmer  from 
his  slumber,  and  shortly  afterward  the  threshing 
is  in  full  swing.  At  top  speed  the  work  usually 
continues,  with  but  an  hour's  noon  intermission, 
until  after  eight  o'clock  in  the  evening. 


THRESHING  79 

In  some  parts  of  California,  Oregon,  and  Wash- 
ington, combined  harvesters  and  threshers  are 
used.  There  the  threshing  season,  though  a  busy 
one,  is  not  marked  by  the  almost  feverish  haste 
which  is  so  evident  where  threshing  is  done  out 
of  shock. 

The  Threshing  Crew.  —  The  number  of  men  in 
a  crew  varies  widely.  It  depends  on  what  the  size 
of  the  machine  is  and  whether  the  threshing  is  done 
from  the  shock  or  stack.  In  the  latter  case 
fewer  men  are  necessary.  With  the  outfits  in 
common  use  from  9  to  30  men  are  employed. 
They  are  in  three  groups,  the  machine,  the  field, 
and  the  grain  men.  The  first  group  includes  a 
fireman-engineer,  a  coal  and  water  boy,  and  a 
thresher  tender.  The  field  men  are  those  who 
deliver  the  grain  in  the  straw  to  the  machine ; 
from  four  to  six  are  employed  in  stack  threshing, 
from  ten  to  twenty  in  shock  threshing.  The 
grain  men  are  those  who  care  for  the  threshed 
wheat  and  haul  it  to  market  or  to  the  farm 
granaries. 

The  machine  crew  remains  with  the  outfit,  going 
with  it  from  place  to  place.  The  field  and  grain 
crews  are  generally  furnished  by  the  farmer.  In 
some  places,  however,  the  field  crew  is  hired  by 
the  thresher  owner  and  always  accompanies  the 
outfit.  In  such  cases  a  complete  threshing  outfit 
includes  the  traction  engine,  fuel  wagon,  water 


8o  THE  WHEAT  INDUSTRY 

tank,  thresher,  cook  shack,  and  dining  tent.  The 
men  usually  sleep  in  straw  stacks  or  barn  lofts. 

Wages  paid  to  the  men  are  fairly  good,  ranging 
from  one  to  four  dollars  per  day  and  board.  The 
field  men  usually  receive  $1.50  to  $3.00  per  day, 
the  water  boy  receives  less,  and  the  engineer 
and  thresher  manager  are  generally  paid  larger 
amounts.  Wages  vary  in  different  parts  of  the 
country  and  in  different  seasons,  but  in  view  of 
the  fact  that  board  and  lodging  are  provided  in 
addition,  are  always  fairly  good. 

Where  the  farmer  furnishes  the  field  crew, 
exchange  of  help  is  the  custom,  neighbors  assist- 
ing each  other  in  turn.  There  first  arrivals  take 
the  more  preferable  duties,  and  late  comers 
draw  the  more  disagreeable  ones.  Before  the 
use  of  wind  stackers  the  work  in  the  straw  pile  was 
invariably  the  fate  of  the  sleepy  one,  the  dust  and 
chaff  making  it  a  place  to  be  avoided  whenever 
possible. 

When  the  noon  whistle  sounds  the  men  all 
hurry  to  the  farmer's  home  for  dinner.  They 
are  dirty,  sweaty,  and  grimy,  and  so  the  wash  in 
the  basins  of  cold  water  provided  outside  is  re- 
freshing although  it  is  not  always  carefully  done. 
A  dinner  of  roast  beef,  fried  chicken,  salmon  balls, 
potatoes  and  gravy,  navy  beans,  green  peas, 
beet  pickles,  bread  and  butter,  honey,  plum  pre- 
serves, grape  jelly,  peach  sauce,  custard  pie,  cake, 


THRESHING 


81 


and  coffee  is  a  model  of  quality  and  abundance. 
This  has  been  prepared  by  the  farmer's  wife, 
with  the  assistance  of  two  or  three  neighbors,  and 
is  usually  placed  at  once  on  the  table,  which  will 
accommodate  about  twelve  people.  Of  course 
there  is  a  scramble  for  places  at  the  first  table. 
The  men  are  hungry  after 
the  forenoon's  work.  But 
there  is  plenty  of  food  for 
all  and  those  who  eat  at 
the  second  table  have  as 
great  variety  as  those  at 
the  first.  The  men  help 
themselves  without  for- 
mality, and  the  prosper- 
ity of  the  season  as  well 
as  the  health  of  the  work- 
ers is  reflected  in  the 
hearty  appetites.  It  is 
a  happy  occasion,  and  the 

Sallies  Of  rural  Wit  passed     FlG-  49.  — The  wheat  farmer  at  thresh- 

ing  time. 

between   the   diners   are 

met  with  uproarious  laughter.  The  meal  finished, 
there  is  but  very  little  rest  before  the  whistle  calls 
the  men  for  the  afternoon's  work,  and  by  evening 
they  are  ready  for  as  bounteous  a  supper. 

The  Cost  of  Threshing  Outfits.  -  -  Threshing  out- 
fits are  usually  owned  by  individuals  who  do  the 
work  for  as  many  of  their  neighbors  as  they  can. 


82  THE  WHEAT  INDUSTRY 

Competition  keeps  the  number  of  outfits  about 
right  both  for  economy  and  efficiency.  The  cost 
of  engines  varies  from  $1000  to  $2000  and  for 
the  threshers  from  $850  to  $1175.  Thus  the 
cost  for  an  ordinary  sized  outfit  such  as  is  widely 
used  in  the  Central  states  is  from  $1850  to  $3175. 
The  selling  price  of  the  combined  harvester- 
thresher  is  from  $1725  to  $4200. 


FIG.    50.  —  The  Combine.     A  combined  harvester-thresher  pulled  by  a  gasoline 

traction  engine. 

The  price  charged  for  threshing  wheat  varies. 
Where  the  field  crew  is  furnished  by  the  farmer 
and  the  threshing  is  out  of  the  stack,  it  ranges 
from  four  to  five  cents  per  bushel.  Where  the 
field  crew  is  furnished  by  the  thresher  owner  and 
the  threshing  is  out  of  the  shock,  from  eight  to 
ten  cents  a  bushel  is  the  usual  charge.  Prices 
must  of  course  be  sufficient  to  pay  wages  for  men 
and  operating  expense  of  machine.  The  latter 


THRESHING  83 

includes  insurance,  depreciation,  and  interest  on 
investment. 

QUESTIONS  AND  EXERCISES 

1.  What  is  meant  by  threshing  wheat? 

2.  Explain  the  use  of  the  flail. 

3.  In  what  ways  is  the  threshing  floor  an  improvement 
over  the  flail  ? 

4.  By  making  inquiry  of  farmers  and  implement  dealers, 
learn  what  makes  and  sizes  of  threshers  are  used  in  your 
locality.     If  possible  study  a  threshing  machine  and  try  to 
learn  the  names  and  uses  of  its  essential  parts.     It  is  interest- 
ing to  tell  the  story  of  what  happens  to  wheat  inside  of  a 
thresher  in  operation. 

5.  What    advantages    have   steam    engines   over    horses 
as  power  for  threshing  ? 

6.  What  is  the  busiest  threshing  month  in  your  vicinity  ? 

7.  How  many  men  usually  make  up  a  threshing  crew  ? 

8.  About  how  many  bushels  is  considered  a  good  (fay's 
work  in  threshing  ? 

9.  Suggest  reasons  why  exchange  of  labor  among  farmers 
is  often  preferred  to  hired  help. 


CHAPTER   VI 


LOCAL    TRANSPORTATION   AND 
STORAGE 

Field  Haulage  before  Threshing.  —  The  first 
haulage  of  wheat  occurs  in  the  field.  The  un- 
threshed  wheat  must  be  brought  either  to  the 
stacks  or  to  the  thresher.  In  some  cases  the 

threshing, 
whether  from 
stack  or  shock, 
is  done  in  the 
farm  lot.  This 
is  a  convenient 
arrangement,  for 
in  most  cases 
the  straw  can 
be  delivered  di- 
rectly into  barns 
or  sheds  where  it  is  to  be  used.  It  also  has  an 
advantage  over  field  threshing  in  that  it  delivers 
the  grain  nearer  the  home  storage  bins  or  wagon 
roads.  The  disadvantage  of  this  system  is  that 

84 


FIG.  51.  —  Wheat  bundles  are  bulky  to  haul. 


LOCAL  TRANSPORTATION  AND  STORAGE  85 

the  unthreshed  wheat  is  bulky  to  haul  long  dis- 
tances. This  plan  is  therefore  generally  followed 
only  where  the  regions  are  made  up  of  small 


FIG.  52.  —  The  wagons  are  arranged  side  by  side  at  the  thresher  to  receive  the 

grain. 

fields  or  where  the  straw  is  to  be  used  either  as 
rough  feed  or  bedding  for  cattle. 

Where  farms  are  large,  the  threshing  is  per- 
formed in  the  field.  If  threshing  is  done  out  of 
shock,  different  settings  are  made  in  order  to  lessen 
the  haulage  of  the  unthreshed  wheat ;  if  out  of 
stack,  the  stacks  have  been  grouped  in  different 
parts  of  the  field  for  the  same  reason.  The  dis- 
tances vary  from  a  few  rods  to  a  mile  or  more,  but 
generally  field  haulage  of  unthreshed  wheat  does 
not  average  much  more  than  a  quarter  of  a  mile. 


86  THE  WHEAT  INDUSTRY 

Field  Haulage  after  Threshing.  --  Loose  Wheat. 

-  The  grain  is  hauled  from  the  field  in  farm 
wagons,  by  many  called  lumber  wagons.  They 
are  filled  by  the  thresher-elevator,  which  weighs 
the  wheat,  usually  in  half  bushel  lots,  registers 
amount,  and  dumps  it  into  the  wagons.  The 
driver  levels  the  grain  in  the  wagon  box  until  it  is 
about  evenly  filled.  While  the  elevator  is  de- 
livering to  one  wagon  another  is  driven  alongside, 
and  when  the  first  is  filled  the  delivery  spout  is 
moved  to  the  second.  The  first  load  is  then 
hauled  away  and  another  wagon  takes  its  place. 
Usually  the  grain  ca'n  be  delivered  at  either  side 
of  the  thresher,  so  the  side  most  nearly  free  from 
dust  is,  of  course,  the  one  used. 

The  capacity  of  the  wagon  is  from  50  to  70 
bushels  where  two-horse  teams  are  used  for  pulling 
the  loads.  This  amount  naturally  varies  with  the 
conditions  of  the  roads  in  different  sections  and 
seasons.  In  very  hilly  or  very  sandy  regions  from 
25  to  30  bushels  make  a  full  load.  If  greater  quan- 
tities are  carried,  more  power  is  applied,  and  four 
horses  are  often  used  instead  of  two.  In  some  of 
the  fields  of  the  smooth  plains  regions  of  Mon- 
tana, North  Dakota,  and  Canada,  larger  wagons 
holding  150  bushels  and  drawn  by  four  or  six 
horses  are  commonly  found. 

The  lumber  wagon,  with  capacity  of  50  or  60 
bushels,  previously  mentioned,  is,  however,  the 


LOCAL  TRANSPORTATION  AND  STORAGE  87 

most  generally  used  for  haulage  from  field  to 
granary  or  to  the  local  market.  When  roads  are 
good  a  man  may  often  be  seen  driving  one  such 
wagon  fully  loaded,  and  leading  a  team  pulling 
another  one. 


FIG.  53.  —  The  grain  is  leveled  in  the  wagon  until  the  box  is  about  evenly  filled. 

Sacked  Wheat.  -  -  In  the  small  farm  sections  of 
eastern  United  States  and  in  the  large  fields  of 
the  northwest,  especially  California,  Oregon,  and 
Washington,  wheat  is  often  sacked  at  the  thresher. 
That  plan  is  not,  however,  generally  followed 
in  the  Central  states  or  in  the  High  Plains 
region. 

Sacking  wheat  puts  it  into  convenient  form  for 
handling  and  involves  very  little  waste.  It  has 
been  found  practical  in  the  Eastern  states  because 
quantities  are  small  and  there  is  considerable 


88  THE  WHEAT  INDUSTRY 

local  shipment  in  less  than  carload  lots.  Also 
where  grain-tight  bins  cannot  readily  be  pro- 
vided, the  sacked  wheat  presents  less  difficulty 
in  storage  and  handling  than  does  the  loose 
grain. 

In  the  Northwest,  the  sacked  wheat  is  in  favor 
because  of  the  export  trade.  This  trade,  though 
important,  has  not  caused  the  establishment  of 
great  terminal  facilities  which  are  equipped  for 
handling  loose  grain.  Such  facilities  have  been 
provided  for  Eastern  markets. 

Local  Storage.  --After  the  wheat  is  threshed  it 
may  either  be  sold  at  once  or  held  for  a  time  by 
the  producer  in  what  is  known  as  local  or  farm 
storage.  Thus  the  time  of  disposal  of  the  wheat 
is  closely  related  to  the  stage  of  development  of  a 
country,  to  the  quantities  produced,  and  to  the 
relative  importance  of  the  wheat  crop  compared 
with  other  farm  products.  The  great  wheat  dis- 
tricts of  the  High  Plains,  of  the  Pacific  Northwest, 
and  of  Canada  are  regions  of  recent  development. 
The  land  is  still  new,  crops  are  large,  but  facilities 
for  handling  them  are  meager.  Other  possible 
sources  of  income  not  having  been  developed  to 
any  great  extent,  wheat  is  by  far  the  most  impor- 
tant crop.  These  combined  factors  cause  the 
wheat  to  be  marketed  as  soon  as  threshed  and 
there  is  relatively  but  little  local  storage.  The 
farmer  sells  his  wheat  because  he  has  a  large 


LOCAL  TRANSPORTATION  AND  STORAGE  89 


surplus  and  no  place  to  keep  it,  and  because  he 
needs  the  money.  During  the  rush  of  some  mar- 
keting seasons  in  Canada  the  only  means  of  stor- 
age has  been  the  placing  of  wheat  in  great  piles 
along  the  railroad  tracks  in  small  towns.  This 
unintentional  and  ruinous  form  of  storage  was  due 

to     inability    to     ] 

obtain  sufficient 
cars  for  prompt 
shipment.  In- 
crease in  amount 
of  wheat  grown 
has  been  so  rapid 
in  some  of  the  re- 
cently developed 
parts  of  Mon- 
tana and  Canada 
that  the  railroads 
have  found  it  a 
serious  task  to 
move  the  crops.  As  conditions  are  becoming  better 
understood  this  problem  is  being  solved. 

Storage  in  Sacks.  —  Local  storage  in  sacks  for 
brief  periods  is  customary  in  parts  of  California, 
Oregon,  and  Washington.  Great  quantities  are 
often  piled  out  of  doors  awaiting  shipment.  Some- 
times board  covers  are  laid  on  the  pile,  though 
often  no  cover  is  provided.  Such  arrangements 
are  possible  in  this  country  because  of  the  almost 


FIG.  54.  —  The    wheat  is  hauled  from  the  field  in 
farm  wagons.     This  load  was  fifty-eight  bushels. 


90  THE  WHEAT  INDUSTRY 

complete  absence  of  rains  during  the  late  summer 
season.  Wheat  stored  in  such  manner  must 
necessarily  be  disposed  of  before  the  rains  of 
autumn  begin,  so  the  period  of  storage  is  brief. 
If  the  owner  expects  to  hold  his  crop  for  a  longer 
time,  he  places  it  in  a  warehouse.  There  are  few 
warehouses,  however,  because  the  practice  is  that 
of  selling  immediately  after  harvest. 

The  conditions  just  described  are  in  rather 
marked  contrast  to  those  in  the  smaller  wheat 
farm  districts  of  Eastern  states.  There,  local 
storage  both  in  bins  and  sacks  is  quite  common. 
This  is  due  to  the  fact  that  the  quantities  grown 
by  each  farmer  are  not  large,  and  that  he  has 
other  crops  which  also  help  to  furnish  his  income. 
Marketing  here  is  quite  generally  done  with  local 
mills  and  bears  a  close  relation  to  their  demands. 
These  conditions  tend  to  discourage  early  selling. 
Other  reasons  why  farmers  favor  holding  wheat 
are  because  it  can  be  readily  converted  into  cash 
at  any  time,  and  because  frequently  the  rise  in 
price,  a  few  months  after  harvest,  yields  an  in- 
creased return  to  the  producer.  Where  farmers 
have  other  sources  of  income  many  defer  selling 
because  of  such  possible  increase. 

Storage  in  Granaries.  —  In  the  Central  states 
local  storage  is  very  important.  This  is  partic- 
ularly true  in  the  older,  more  densely  settled  por- 
tions where  good  farm  buildings  prevail.  There 


LOCAL  TRANSPORTATION  AND  STORAGE   91 

granaries  are  considered  essential  parts  of  the 
farming  equipment.  On  moderate  sized  farms, 
buildings  of  from  2000  to  5000  bushels  storage 
capacity  are  common,  and  some  farmers  have 
built  granaries  holding  as  much  as  10,000  bushels. 
These  are  used  mainly  for  wheat  since  corn  is 
stored  in  the  ear  in 
cribs.  Sheet  steel 
granaries  or  bins  are 
in  favor  in  many 
parts  of  the  country 
and  especially  so  in 
this  section.  These 
bins  are  cylindrical, 
the  diameters  ^vary- 
ing from  6  to  18 
feet,  height  from  6 
to  12  feet,  and  ca- 
pacity from  135  to 
2500  bushels.  Their 
advantage  is  due  to 
their  low  cost,  safety 
from  fire,  freedom  from  rats  and  mice,  and  their 
moisture-proof  qualities.  The  principal  motive 
for  farm  storage  in  this  section  is  to  take  ad- 
vantage of  the  rise  in  prices  expected  after  the 
main  rush  of  marketing  in  the  Northern  and 
Western  districts  has  passed.  Sometimes  the  rise 
does  not  occur  or  is  not  high  enough  to  satisfy  the 


FIG.  55.  —  A  sheet  steel  granary. 


92  THE  WHEAT  INDUSTRY 

producers.  Then  the  wheat  may  be  held  until 
the  following  year,  and  sometimes,  though  not 
often,  for  two  or  three  years. 

The  Methods  of  Unloading.  —  The  grain  is 
unloaded  into  storage  by  shoveling  into  the  bins 
of  the  granary.  This  is  hard  work,  but  more 


FIG.   56.  —  A  typical  farm    granary.     The   elevator  is  also   shown  with  wagon 
in  position  for  unloading. 

labor  is  necessary  later  when  the  wheat  in  order 
to  be  marketed  must  be  reloaded  by  shoveling 
back  into  the  wagons.  On  the  better  equipped 
farms,  elevators  are  provided.  In  this  case  the 
grain  can  be  unloaded  by  raising  the  front  end  of 
the  wagon,  opening  the  back  end  gate,  and  allow- 
ing the  wheat  to  slide  into  a  hopper  from  which  a 


LOCAL  TRANSPORTATION  AND  STORAGE  93 

belt  conveyer  carries  it  to  the  top  of  a  bin  and 
discharges  it.  The  team  used  in  pulling  the  load 
from  the  field  is  hitched  to  a  small  horse  power 
and  thus  serves  to  operate  the  unloading  ma- 
chinery. 

A  few  farmers  have  built  granaries  arranged 
with  overhead  driveways  so  that  the  load  can  be 
driven  directly  over  the  bin  and  there  dumped. 
Such  equipment  adds  so  much  to  the  cost  that  it 
is  not  ordinarily  considered  profitable. 

In  general,  manual  labor  prevails  for  unloading 
into  farm  granaries.  Power  plants  and  elevated 
driveways  are,  in  most  cases,  considered  too  ex- 
pensive to  be  profitable.  But  there  is  a  strong 
tendency  at  this  time  toward  the  use  of  mechanical 
unloaders  in  the  Central  states. 

Good  Roads  in  Relation  to  Farm  Storage.  --  A 
matter  of  vital  relation  to  farm  storage  is  the 
condition  of  the  roads  to  the  local  market.  If 
the  roads  are  good  at  threshing  time,  many  farm- 
ers will  sell  at  once  rather  than  store  at  home  and 
take  chances  on  finding  roads  in  bad  shape  when 
later  they  wish  to  sell.  On  the  other  hand,  when 
roads  are  poor  at  threshing  time,  home  storage  is 
thereby  encouraged.  This  is  an  especially  marked 
control,  since  a  large  part  of  the  wheat-producing 
section  of  our  country  is  almost  entirely  without 
macadamized  roadways ;  and,  in  much  of  this 
region,  but  little  attention  has  been  given  to 


94  THE  WHEAT  INDUSTRY 

maintaining  even  good  earth  roads.  The  farmers 
have  recently  begun  to  take  positive  steps  toward 
road  betterment  because  they  now  realize  that 
good  roads  reduce  the  cost  of  marketing.  The 
importance  of  good  country  roads  in  wheat  dis- 
tricts is  clear  when  we  know  that  it  is  necessary 
for  farmers  to  haul  as  far  as  eight  to  ten  or  even 
twenty  miles  to  a  shipping  point. 

Storage  in  Town  Elevators.  —  At  the  shipping 
stations,  grain-handling  buildings  called  elevators 
have  generally  been  built  at  the  side  of  the  rail- 
road tracks.  These  have  several  bins  with  a 
combined  storage  capacity  of  from  5000  to  20,000 
bushels.  The  elevator  is  a  tall  building  from  45 
to  70  feet  high,  bearing  some  resemblance  to  a 
tower.  It  is  usually  painted  red.  In  the  smaller 
places  the  elevators  are  ordinarily  the  most  prom- 
inent buildings  in  town.  The  farmer  first  hauls 
his  load  upon  the  scales,  which  are  either  separate 
from  the  main  building  or  are  connected  with  it. 
The  load  is  weighed,  wagon  and  all,  then  driven 
upon  a  platform  in  the  elevator  where  it  is  un- 
loaded by  dumping.  This  consists  of  opening  a 
trap  door  in  the  platform,  taking  out  the  rear 
end  gate  of  the  wagon  and  tilting  the  platform, 
which  swings  on  an  axis,  so  that  the  grain  slides 
into  a  bin  below.  When  the  wagon  is  empty  it  is 
again  weighed,  and  in  this  manner  the  net  amount 
of  grain  is  determined.  Driving  the  wagon  out  of 


LOCAL  TRANSPORTATION  AND  STORAGE  95 

the  elevator  causes  the  platform  to  resume  its 
horizontal  position  and  become  locked,  leaving  it 
ready  for  the  next  load.  The  grain  in  the  lower 
bin  is  then  removed  by  means  of  endless  bucket 
elevators  to  upper  bins  or  into  railroad  cars 
near  by.  In  this  way  a  large  quantity  of  grain 
can  be  cared  for  in  a  very  short  time  and  with  very 
little  labor. 

Because  of  the  uncertainty  in  the  condition  of 
the  roads  at  a  time  when  the  farmer  may  wish  to 
sell,  he  sometimes  arranges  to  haul  his  grain 
directly  from  thresher  to  elevator  and  store  it 
there  rather  than  to  make  immediate  sale.  In 
such  case  he  pays  storage  on  his  wheat  and,  of 
course,  depends  on  increased  price  to  reimburse 
him  for  the  amount  of  storage  paid,  as  well  as  to 
pay  interest  on  the  money  tied  up  in  the  wheat. 
There  is  an  apparent  advantage  in  this  arrange- 
ment since  the  wheat  is  weighed  at  time  of  delivery 
and  the  owner  avoids  the  loss  due  to  shrinkage. 
When  it  is  stored  on  the  farm  the  owner  must 
stand  this  loss  directly.  Storage  charges  usually 
take  this  into  consideration,  however,  so  that  the 
gain  is  more  apparent  than  real. 

Local  elevators  usually  have  a  very  limited 
capacity  for  storage.  The  desirability  of  accom- 
modating all  customers  has  led  to  a  practice 
sometimes  resorted  to  of  shipping  the  wheat  to 
storehouses  in  large  centers.  Thus,  it  has  been 


96  THE  WHEAT  INDUSTRY 

found  that  some  small  town  elevators  would  show 
by  their  records  that  they  had  in  storage  four  or 
five  times  their  capacity,  while  an  investigation 
would  disclose  the  fact  that  most  of  the  bins  were 
empty.  The  farmers  held  certificates  stating  that 
they  had  stored  a  certain  number  of  bushels.  They 
could  sell  at  any  time,  a  possibility  which  then 
meant  that  they  could  exchange  their  wheat  cer- 
tificates for  cash  on  demand  based  on  current 
wheat  prices.  This  has  been  called  wheat  bank- 
ing. It  shows  how  country  roads,  wheat  crops, 
and  farm  and  elevator  storage  are  intimately 
linked  with  business  operations  and  reach  into 
numerous  channels  of  trade. 


QUESTIONS  AND  EXERCISES 

1.  Why  are  wheat  stacks  in  most  cases  built  in  the  field 
rather  than  in  the  farmyard  ? 

2.  Describe  loading  the  wheat  at  the  thresher. 

3.  What  are  the   advantages  of  handling  the  wheat  in 
bulk  instead  of  in  sacks  ? 

4.  Suggest  conditions  which  make  it  preferable  to  sack 
the  wheat. 

5.  Under  what   conditions    are   farmers   most   likely  to 
sell  their  wheat  as  soon  as  threshed  ? 

6.  Why  are  granaries   usually  not   numerous   in   newly 
settled  wheat  regions  ? 

7.  What  are  some  advantages  of  sheet  steel  granaries  ? 

8.  How    do    the    conditions    of   the    roads    affect    farm 
storage  of  wheat  ? 


LOCAL  TRANSPORTATION  AND  STORAGE    97 

9.    Suggest  some  advantages  of  storage  in  town  elevators ; 
some  disadvantages. 

10.  What  are  the  factors  that  the  farmer  must  take  into 
consideration  when  he  is  contemplating  placing  his  wheat 
in  storage  ? 


98 


THE  WHEAT  INDUSTRY 


*s*|it*i' 

•?  •«  g  §  s  s  g1  m 


CHAPTER  VII 
FACTORS  IN  WHEAT  PRODUCTION 

THERE  are  three  important  factors  to  be  con- 
sidered in  the  actual  production  of  wheat :  the 
land,  located  where  soil  and  climatic  conditions 
are  favorable ;  the  machinery  for  tillage  and 
harvesting ;  and  the  power  for  driving  the  ma- 
chinery. Since  these  factors  vary  greatly  in  the 
different  wheat-growing  regions,  the  production, 
both  in  the  items  of  cost  and  quantity,  is  directly 
concerned  with  each  of  them. 

Wheat-producing  Areas.  -  -  The  principal  wheat- 
producing  countries  are  in  the  temperate  zones. 
They  lie  between  parallels  30°  and  60°  north  and 
27°  and  40°  south  latitudes.  The  exceptions  to 
this  are  the  three  plateau-like  areas  including 
parts  of  India,  Egypt,  and  Mexico.  In  these 
plateaus  the  higher  altitude  offsets  the  effect  of 
tropical  location. 

The  Effect  of  Climate  on  Wheat  Production.  — 
Though  wheat  may  be  grown  in  warm  latitudes, 
it  is  of  commercial  importance  only  in  countries 
which  have  warm  summers  and  moderately  cold 

99 


ioo  THE  WHEAT  INDUSTRY 

winters.  The  effect  of  temperature  is  clearly 
shown.  Wherever  wheat  is  produced  on  a  large 
scale,  it  makes  its  early  growth  during  the  cool 
and  moist  season  of  the  year  and  has  a  warm  and 
relatively  dry  season  for  ripening. 
LWheat  requires  only  a  moderate  rainfall  during 
its  growing  period,)  a  great  deal  less  than  some  of 
the  other  cereals.  \Thirty  inches  per  year,  prop- 
erly distributed,  is  ample  for  any  of  the  commer- 
cial varieties,  j  Some  of  the  drought-resisting 
wheats,  such  as  Durum  Wheat  or  Club  Wheat,  are 
successfully  produced  where  the  annual  rainfall  is 
even  less  than  15  inches.  Commercial  production 
is  most  important  in  temperate  regions  of  moderate 
rainfall,  and  of  relatively  dry  harvest  seasons. 

The  form  in  which  the  moisture  is  likely  to 
come,  together  with  winter  temperature  conditions, 
determines  whether  winter  or  spring  wheat  will 
predominate  in  a  given  section.  If  winter  tem- 
peratures rarely  drop  to  more  than  20°  below 
zero,  winter  wheat  is  grown  regardless  of  the 
amount  of  prevalent  snowfall,  because  such  a 
degree  of  cold  does  not  prove  injurious  to  the 
hardier  varieties.  Where  the  temperature  dur- 
ing the  winter  season  falls  much  below  the  point 
mentioned,  unless  a  snow  cover  can  be  depended 
upon  to  protect  the  ground,  spring  wheat  is 
grown.  Thus  because  of  the  cold  winters  and 
light  snowfall,  spring  wheat  is  raised  in  North 


FACTORS   IN  WHEAT  PEODUCTIPN     101 

Dakota.  Here  the  winds  in  sweeping  over  the 
open  plains  country  blow  the  snow  into  drifts, 
and  the  fields,  deprived  of  the  protecting  snow 
mantle,  are  exposed  to  the  extreme  cold.  The 
value  of  the  snow  cover  is  shown  by  the  fact  that 
winter  wheat  is  grown  in  some  parts  of  north- 


. 

i,;;7:fflS?P% 


FIG.  58.  —  A  snow  cover  on  the  ground  serves  to  protect  winter  wheat. 

central  Wisconsin,  a  region  of  heavy  snowfall, 
while  in  the  southeastern  part  of  the  state,  with  a 
milder  winter  temperature  but  a  lighter  snowfall, 
spring  wheat  is  raised. 

Where  the  normal  rainfall  is  insufficient  to 
make  wheat  crops  reasonably  certain,  irrigation 
is  practiced.  This  is  available  only  for  restricted 
areas  because  of  water  supply  or  of  unfavorable 


102  THE  WHEAT  INDUSTRY 

location  or  topography.  Though  irrigation  adds 
materially  to  the  cost  of  production,  it  reimburses 
the  outlay  by  giving  much  greater  returns  per 
acre.  On  the  whole  the  amount  of  wheat  raised 
under  irrigation  is  small.  Yet  in  many  valleys 
in  the  Western  states  it  is  an  important  industry. 
The  greater  part,  however,  of  the  wheat  of  com- 
merce is  grown  under  natural  rainfall  conditions. 

The  Soil  and  Wheat  Production.  — I  Wheat 
thrives  well  on]/a  number  of  soils  of  widely  differ- 
ent characteristics,  ranging  from  those  of  heavy 
clay  to  those  of  light  sandy  content.  Its  adapta- 
bility to  different  climatic  and  soil  conditions 
makes  possible  its  extensive  cultivation.  In  the 
United  States  the  soils  of  the  principal  wheat- 
growing  area  are  of  four  general  classes.  These 
are  glacial  drift,  loess,  high  plains  soils,  and 
valley  bottom  soils.  Generally  they  are  all  rich 
in  the  elements  needed  as  food  by  the  wheat  plant, 
and  contain  them  in  available  form.  Where 
winter  wheat  is  grown,  silt  loam  soils  are  favored, 
as  they  are  somewhat  less  liable  to  heaving  than 
the  more  friable  sandy  loams.  Heaving  of  the 
soil  is  caused  by  successive  freezing  and  thawing. 
This  often  partially  uproots  the  wheat  and  causes 
it  to  be  winterkilled. 

Ordinarily  soils  that  are  adapted  to  wheat  are 
also  suited  to  corn  and  other  cereals.  Climate 
and  prices  are  the  chief  controls  which  determine 


FACTORS   IN  WHEAT  PRODUCTION     103 

the  choice  of  wheat,   corn,   oats,   rye,   flax,   and 
barley. 

Enemies  and  Diseases  that  affect  Wheat  Pro- 
duction.--Related  to  both  soil  and  climate,  and 
seriously  affecting  the  production  of  wheat,  are 
its  enemies  and  diseases.  Like  all  living  things, 
wheat  must  struggle  to  live.  It  is  hindered  by 
weeds,  plant  diseases,  and  insects. 


From  Riley,  7th  Missouri  Report. 

FIG.  59.  —  The  chinch  bug :  adult,  a,  b,  eggs ;  c,  newly  hatched  larva  with 
enlarged  tarsus  at  d;  e,  larva  after  first  molt;  /,  larva  after  second  molt; 
g,  pupa ;  h,  i,  j,  leg,  tarsus,  and  beak  of  adult  bug. 

Weeds.  -  -  Weeds  interfere  with  the  growth  of 
wheat  by  choking  it  out,  thus  lessening  the  yield, 
and  reducing  the  quality  of  the  grain.i  Of  the 
many  weeds  that  attack  wheat  fields  the  most 
persistent  are  those  commonly  known  as  Chess, 
Russian  Thistle,  and  Wild  Mustard.  In  these  the 
seeding  methods  are  so  well  perfected  that  their 
extermination  is  difficult.  The  general  methods 
employed  in  combating  weeds  and  thus  prevent- 


104 


THE  WHEAT  INDUSTRY 


FIG.  60.  —  The  Hessian  fly :  adult  female  at  the  left,  adult  male  at  the  right  — 
both  enlarged  several  times. 


Rearranged  by  M.  H.  Swenk,  from  Webster,  Marlatt,  and  Washburn. 

FIG.  61.  —  The  later  stages  of  the  Hessian  fly:  a,  four  larvae  changing  to  the 
flaxseed  stage,  enlarged  four  times ;  b,  flaxseed  or  puparium,  much  enlarged ;  c, 
larva  taken  from  flaxseed,  much  enlarged;  e,  infested  wheat  plant  showing 
emergence  of  pupae  and  adults,  enlarged. 


FACTORS   IN  WHEAT  PRODUCTION    105 


ing  crop  destruction  are  applicable  in  the  case  of 
wheat.  The  best  rules  are,  --  first,  see  that  the 
wheat  seed  is  clean ;  second,  provide  a  carefully 
prepared  seed  bed  ;  third,  keep  the  weeds  killed 
which  tend  to  grow  on  vacant  ground  in  and  about 
the  fields.  This  lat- 
ter precaution  also 
assists  in  holding  in 
check  the  insect 
enemies,  —  the 
chinch  bug  and 
Hessian  fly.  These 
pests,  since  they  also 
feed  upon  weeds  and 
grasses,  are  sure  to 
find  harboring  places 
here. 

Smut  and  Rust.— 
Fungus  diseases  are 
more  difficult  to 
combat.  In  the 
first  place  they  usu- 
ally have  a  firm  hold  upon  the  wheat  plant  before 
they  are  discovered  and,  second,  they  are  not  so  well 
understood.  The  most  common  of  these  enemies 
are  known  as  smut  and  rust.  These  are  tiny 
parasitic  plants  which  develop  within  the  wheat 
plant.  During  the  process  of  reproduction,  how- 
ever, parts  of  these  plants  worm  their  way  to  the 


From  Plant  Diseases  —  Freeman. 

FIG.  62.  —  Rust  on  wheat  stems.  Note 
the  spots  which  indicate  the  growth  of  this 
fungus  which  lessens  the  vitality  of  the  plant. 


io6 


THE  WHEAT  INDUSTRY 


air  and  the  spores  appear  on  the  outside.  Rust 
spores  then  appear  upon  the  leaves.  Smut  spores, 
which  appear  about  the  time  when  the  wheat  is  in 

flower,  cover  the  spike. 
Spores  have  the  same 
relation  to  parasitic 
plants  that  seeds  have 
to  higher  plants  ;  and, 
since  they  are  innu- 
merable, these  diseases 
spread  rapidly.  Smut 
spores  attack  the  grain 
in  different  ways. 
Sometimes  they  fill  the 
grain,  making  what 
are  called  smut  balls. 
Sometimes  only  the 
stem  of  the  plant  is 
affected.  This  weak- 
ens the  plant  and 
consequently  the  grain 
yield  is  small.  Rust 
living  within  the  plant 


From  Plant  Diseases  — Freeman. 


FIG.  63. -stinking  smut  of  wheat:     does    its    damage    by 

j,   an    infected   spike;    2,   smut   infected       usin£      the       food      ma- 
spikelet ;  3,  smutted  kernels.  .  ° 

tenals  which  are  neces- 
sary for  the  growth  of  the  host.  In  this  way  the 
wheat  plant  is  weakened  and  a  low  yield  and 
shriveled  grain  is  sure  to  result. 


FACTORS  IN  WHEAT  PRODUCTION     107 

There  is  no  known  remedy  for  wheat  rust. 
Preventive  measures,  however,  are  quite  effec- 
tive. Much  the  same  methods  are  employed  as 
are  used  in  combating  weeds.  The  seed  wheat 
should  be  clean  and  should  be  selected  from  grain 
that  has  been  free  from  rust.  All  weeds  and 
grasses  that  aid  the  growth  of  the  rust  should  be 
destroyed.  Smut,  likewise,  is  destroyed  by  treat- 
ing the  seed  with  preparations  which  kill  the 
smut  spores  without  injury  to  the  grain.  A  crop 
which  is  thoroughly  infested  with  smut  cannot 
be  saved.  This  makes  vigorous  preventive  meas- 
ures necessary  when  the  seed  wheat  is  even  sus- 
pected of  infection. 

The  Size  of  Farms  which  produce  Wheat.  —  Wheat 
is  a  product  of  the  small  farm  as  well  as  of  the 
large.  In  Italy  and  Greece,  five  acres  is  a  fair- 
sized  field.  In  Sweden,  ten  to  twenty  acre  fields 
are  common,  while  in  the  Western  plains  region  of 
the  United  States  there  are  many  fields  of  from 
300  to  2000  acres.  The  size  of  the  farm  depends 
upon  density  of  population  and  upon  isolation 
of  the  country.  Fields  in  Belgium  and  the  Neth- 
erlands, because  of  a  very  crowded  population,  are 
small.  In  certain  remote  parts  of  Asia  Minor, 
the  fields  are  likewise  small  from  the  very  fact  of 
their  isolation.  Here  lack  of  transportation  facil- 
ities compels  the  people  to  raise  their  own  wheat 
and  grind  their  own  flour.  Furthermore,  their 


io8  THE  WHEAT  INDUSTRY 

implements  are  crude  and  each  man  is  able  to 
produce  only  a  small  quantity.  Under  these 
conditions  he  would  find  a  large  field  useless.  A 
marked  contrast  is  this  condition  with  that  of 
Kansas,  the  Dakotas,  or  Canada.  There,  railroad 
transportation  is  well  developed,  modern  imple- 
ments are  used,  each  man  is  able  to  produce 
abundantly,  and  large  farms  are  the  rule.  The 
great  bulk  of  the  wheat  of  commerce  comes  from 
countries  in  which  regions  of  large  farms  abound. 
These  are  found  in  Russia,  Argentina,  Australia, 
Canada,  and  the  United  States.  In  these  coun- 
tries the  per  capita  production  is  high  and  the 
local  population  does  not  use  all  the  wheat  pro- 
duced. A  surplus,  therefore,  available  for  export 
purposes  is  the  result.  Wheat  is  likewise  a  favor- 
ite crop  in  newly  settled  regions  because  it  gives 
large  yields  and  quick  returns.  In  new  regions 
the  price  per  bushel  is  lower  than  near  the  great 
markets,  but  the  low  price  of  the  land  more  than 
offsets  this  disadvantage. 

The  average  area  of  wheat  on  the  farms  in  the 
United  States  is  reported  by  the  Thirteenth  Cen- 
sus as  being  30.3  acres.  That  different  sections 
vary  greatly  from  this  average  is  shown  by  the 
fact  that  the  average  wheat  acreage  per  farm  in 
Massachusetts  is  1.3;  in  New  York,  8.4;  in 
Nebraska,  41.4;  in  North  Dakota,  137.9; 
in  Washington,  152.8  acres. 


FACTORS   IN  WHEAT  PRODUCTION     109 

The  Farm  Machinery. — The  implement  equip- 
ment for  wheat  production  varies  with  the  size  of 
the  farm.  The  machinery  used  where  fields  av£r- 
age  less  than  15  acres  is  simple.  Much  hand 
labor  is  usually  involved.  Where  walking  plows, 
small  harrows,  and  seeders  are  used,  the  cost  per 
acre  for  implements  is  nearly  as  high  as  in  places 
where  larger  farm  units  prevail.  Without  giving 
much  attention  to  the  equipment  used  on  either 
extremely  large  or  extremely  small  wheat  farms, 
it  is  of  interest  to  know  the  implements  needed 
for  typical  conditions.  Let  us  take  as  the  basis 
the  average  wheat  acreage  per  farm  in  1999. 
This  was  reported  by  the  census  to  be  30.3  acres. 
A  fair  equipment  for  raising  wheat  on  such  a 
farm  would  be : 

Three  horses,  $150  value  each $450.00 

One  plow      . 40.00 

One  harrow 25.00 

One  drill "...'. 50.00 

One  binder  (six-foot  cut) 125.00 

One  rack  for  hauling  bundles        20.00 

One  wagon  for  hauling  grain         60.00 

Total $770.00 

Where  such  farms  prevail  the  threshing  is  hired 
done,  so  no  investment  is  needed  for  that  part  of 
the  work.  Much  of  this  machinery  would  be 
used  for  other  farm  purposes  as  well  as  for  wheat, 
and  therefore  the  cost  should  not  be  considered  as  for 


no  THE  WHEAT  INDUSTRY 

wheat  alone.  In  fact  fields  of  3O-acre  size  are 
only  common  in  the  corn  belt  states,  and  there 
other  small  grains  and  corn  are  also  extensively 
grown. 

The  equipment  needed  in  the  regions  where 
wheat  is  the  principal  crop  is  more  extensive. 
Fields  there  are  usually  100  acres  or  larger.  For 
such  conditions,  the  wheat-raising  outfit  consists 
essentially  of  the  following  : 

Six  horses,  $150  each $900.00 

One  gang  plow 64.00 

One  harrow  (24  feet)     ...  * 24.00 

One  disc .  40.00 

One  drill 105.00 

One  binder  (eight-foot  cut) 150.00 

Two  racks  for  hauling  bundles,  $50  each      .     .     .  100.00 

Two  wagons  for  hauling  grain,  $85  each       .     .     .  170.00 

One  elevator  for  unloading  and  loading  grain   .     .  175.00 

Total $1728.00 

For  larger  fields  the  equipment  is  increased  in  pro- 
portion. Thus  the  cost  per  acre  of  necessary 
equipment  is  not  materially  reduced. 

Threshing  outfits  are  usually  owned  by  a  farmer  ; 
only  a  few  machines,  however,  are  owned  in  each 
community.  These  few  can  easily  take  care  of 
the  work  because  the  working  capacity  of  a  thresh- 
ing machine  is  so  much  greater  than  that  of  the 
other  machinery  involved  in  wheat  growing.  The 
cost  of  the  machine  is  likewise  relatively  high. 


FACTORS  IN  WHEAT  PRODUCTION     in 


To  hire  the  threshing  done  is  the  economical  plan. 

It    is    prevalent    in    all    sections    except    on    the 

''  bonanza  farms,"  found  in  some  parts  of  North 

Dakota,  California,  Washington,  and  Canada.    For 

wheat   farms  of 

500      acres      or 

more,        the 

grower  generally 

provides  his  own 

thresher. 

The  Power 
used  in  Wheat 
Raising.- 
Horses  consti- 
tute the  chief 
power  used  in 
the  world's  pro- 
duction  of 
wheat.  How- 
ever, in  the  more  progressive  countries,  and  partic- 
ularly in  sections  where  large  fields  predominate, 
much  of  the  work  which  was  formerly  done  only  by 
horses,  is  now  done  by  steam  and  gas  engines. 
Tractors  are  used  for  plowing,  seeding,  harvesting, 
threshing,  and  even  marketing.  The  cost  of  this 
method  is  usually  not  much  less  per  acre  than  that 
of  horse  labor,  but  the  daily  capacity  is  much 
greater.  Since  wheat  needs  prompt  attention,  this 
is  the  great  point  in  its  favor.  But  even  in  such 


FIG.  64.  —  A  binder  left  standing  in  the  field 
for  many  weeks  after  the  harvest  is  done.  A  poor 
practice. 


ii2  THE  WHEAT  INDUSTRY 

regions  a  great  deal  of  the  work  is  done  by 
horses. 

In  contrast  to  the  conditions  described  there 
may  be  mentioned  some  of  the  countries  such  as 
Palestine,  Asia  Minor,  and  Egypt,  where  other 
animals  are  used.  Here  cattle  are  quite  generally 
made  use  of  to  pull  the  plows.  In  Egypt  a  team 
made  up  of  a  cow  and  a  camel  is  so  common  that 
the  sight  arouses  no  comment.  Here,  likewise, 
for  seeding  and  harvesting  hand  labor  prevails. 
In  the  Mediterranean  countries,  manual  labor  is 
cheap  and  therefore  plays  a  much  more  prominent 
part  in  wheat  production  than  it  does  in  the 
United  States  or  Canada. 

We  may  consider,  then,  that  the  power  employed 
in  the  world's  wheat  production  varies  from  the 
cow  and  camel  method  to  that  of  mighty  machin- 
ery, great  engines,  and  practically  no  hand 
labor.  These  are  real  and  interesting  extremes. 
But  after  all  the  bulk  of  the  world's  wheat  is 
produced  by  men  who  use  up-to-date  machinery 
of  moderate  size  with  horses  as  the  pulling  force. 

The  Importance  of  Machinery. — Few  of  us 
realize  the  tremendous  saving  in  time  and  expense 
that  we  enjoy  because  of  modern  machinery.  It 
is  estimated  that  as  recently  as  1830  the  average 
amount  of  human  labor  required  to  produce  a 
bushel  of  wheat  in  the  United  States  was  about 
3  hours  and  3  minutes.  In  1899  it  required  but 


FACTORS   IN  WHEAT  PRODUCTION     113 

10  minutes.1  This  difference  is  due  largely  to  the 
increased  use  of  machinery.  In  1830  the  plow  was 
a  clumsy  wooden  affair,  the  seed  was  sown  by  hand 
and  was  harrowed  into  the  ground  by  drawing  brush 
over  it.  Furthermore  the  grain  was  cut  by  cradles 
and  hauled  to  the  barn,  where  it  was  threshed  some 
time  during  the  winter  by  beating  it  with  flails, 
and  separated  by  hand  fanning  mills.  Now  the 
ground  is  turned  by  steel  plows  and  pulverized  by 
discs,  the  seed  is  sown  mechanically,  and  the  grain 
is  cut  and  threshed  by  steam-driven  machines  of 
great  capacity.  All  this  change  has  come  in  less 
than  a  century. 

The  Yield  of  Wheat. --The  United  States  and 
Russia  are  the  greatest  wheat-growing  countries  in 
the  world.  The  United  States  in  1914  produced 
891,017,000  bushels  of  wheat,  and  Russia  in  1913 
produced  962,587,000  bushels.  In  both  of  these 
countries  wheat  farming  is  carried  on  extensively 
and  large  fields  are  common.  But  the  yield  per 
acre  is  much  less  in  these  countries  than  is  the 
average  in  some  other  regions.  Note  for  example 
the  average  yield  per  acre  in  the  following  countries 
for  the  years  1901-1911  inclusive: 

United  Kingdom 32.8  bushels 

Germany        3°  7       " 

France 20.1        " 

1  Twelfth  Census  Report,  Vol.  X,  p.  352. 


1 14  THE  WHEAT  INDUSTRY 

Austria-Hungary 19.9  bushels 

United  States 14.3        " 

Russia        10.0       " 

The  reasons  for  the  relatively  low  yields  re- 
ported by  the  United  States  and  Russia  are,  --  (i) 
extensive  rather  than  intensive  cultivation,  (2) 
continuous  wheat  cropping,  (3)  small  amount  of 
fertilizers  used,  and  (4)  large  acreage  grown  where 
climatic  conditions  are  not  favorable  for  heavy 
yields.  The  last  reason  is  often  overlooked.  Its 
importance,  however,  cannot  be  questioned.  Re- 
gions of  somewhat  scanty  rainfall  may  produce 
only  moderate  yields  yet  be  more  profitably  de- 
voted to  wheat  than  to  other  crops.  Population 
in  such  places  is  scattered,  fields  large,  and  land 
low-priced. 

The  differences  in  yield  per  acre  in  the  wheat 
countries  of  the  world  are  very  similar  to  those  of 
different  sections  of  the  United  States.  Kansas 
and  North  Dakota  are  the  two  states  leading  in 
total  production,  but  they  are  far  down  the  scale 
in  yield  per  acre.  In  1913,  a  year  of  very  high 
wheat  production,  the  yield  per  acre  in  Kansas 
averaged  only  13  bushels,  in  North  Dakota  10.5 
bushels,  while  Maine  reported  an  average  of  25.5 
bushels  per  acre.  Yet  no  one  would  question  that 
wheat  is  a  very  profitable  crop  in  the  first  named 
states.  Although  low  yields  may  be  profitable  in 
some  places,  higher  yields  are  desirable  and  so  there 


FACTORS   IN  WHEAT  PRODUCTION     115 

is  need  for  studying  methods  of  increasing  the 
yield. 

The  Effect  of  Tillage.  —  Careful  preparation  of 
seed  bed  is  essential.  Extensive  farming  often 
involves  working  a  part  of  the  ground  when  con- 
ditions are  unfavorable.  Because  of  the  size  of 
the  field,  only  part  of  the  plowing  is  done  at  the 
right  time, --part  of  it  must  be  delayed.  When 
the  remaining  part  is  plowed,  sometimes  the  soil 
is  too  dry,  at  other  times  it  is  too  wet.  Large 
acreage  is  depended  upon  to  make  up  for  the 
lessened  yield  per  acre,  caused  by  such  conditions. 
With  a  denser  population  and  the  consequently 
increased  competition,  greater  care  in  planting 
and  preparation  becomes  necessary. 

The  Importance  of  Seed  Selection.  —  Conditions 
in  the  wheat-growing  regions  of  North  America 
are  so  diverse  and  settlement  in  many  parts  so 
recent,  that  the  varieties  best  suited  to  different 
localities  are  still  in  doubt.  Constant  experimen- 
tation is  in  progress  that  lines  of  improvement  may 
be  found  for  these  cases.  With  more  complete 
adaption  of  variety  to  local  soil  and  climate  con- 
ditions, higher  yields  will  follow. 

The  Rotation  of  Crops.  --Wheat  farmers  are  com- 
ing to  realize  that  continuously  planting  to  the 
same  crop  on  the  same  soil  soon  causes  decreased 
yields.  This  is  due  to  the  fact  that  the  amount  of 
available  food  material  necessary  to  the  particular 


ii6  THE  WHEAT  INDUSTRY 

plant  is  diminished  and  crop  rotation  or  summer 
fallowing  prolongs  the  period  of  high  productivity 
by  maintaining  a  favorable  physical  condition  of 
the^soil. 

The  Use  of  Fertilizers.--^^  soil  must  possess 
in  available  form  the  essentials  for  plant  growth, 
viz.,  (i)  sufficient  though  not  excessive  moisture, 
(2)  lime,  and  (3)  the  indispensable  elements  of 
plant  food,  nitrogen,  phosphoric  acid,  and  potash. 
The  last  three  are  usually  contained  in  barnyard 
manure,  which  is  considered  an  excellent  fertilizer. 
The  old  sections  of  the  United  States,  as  well  as 
most  European  countries,  have  ample  rainfall, 
but  long-continued  cropping  has  reduced  the  supply 
of  available  plant  food  in  the  soil.  In  order  to 
raise  paying  wheat  crops  the  deficiency  must  be 
overcome.  This  may  be  done  by  applying  pre- 
pared mixtures  which  are  high  in  the  particular 
plant  foods  needed.  Such  mixtures  are  known  as 
commercial  fertilizers.  The  cost  of  this  fertiliza- 
tion is  heavy,  but  the  returns  are  so  materially  in- 
creased that  the  farmer  is  much  more  than  repaid 
for  his  outlay. 

In  the  more  newly  settled  regions  commercial 
fertilizers  have  not  proved  profitable.  The  soils  are 
naturally  very  fertile  and  cropping  has  not  continued 
long  enough  to  deplete  the  available  plant  food. 
This  condition  is  generally  true  of  the  states  west 
of  the  Mississippi  River.  Here  to  most  of  the 


FACTORS  IN  WHEAT  PRODUCTION    117 

farmers  the  term  commercial  fertilizer  is  practi- 
cally unknown.  Such  is  not  the  case,  however, 
in  the  Eastern  states.  There  fertilizers  present 
an  important  item  of  cost  in  wheat  production. 
The  following  table  shows  some  marked  contrasts 
in  the  cost  per  acre  in  selected  states.1 

Commercial  Fertilizers  in  Wheat  Production,  1909 


STATE 

COST  PER 
ACRE 

STATE 

COST  PER 
ACRE 

Maine  .... 
Pennsylvania  .  . 
New  York  .  .  . 
Ohio  

£5.00 
2.83 
2.50 
I.?6 

Nebraska      .     .     . 
Kansas     .... 
North  Dakota 
Oklahoma 

$    -09 
.06 
.06 
.O'? 

Minnesota  . 

.18 

It  is  readily  seen  that  the  states  which  can  pro- 
duce profitable  crops  without  the  use  of  commer- 
cial fertilizers  have  a  distinct  advantage  in  cost 
of  production.  In  such  regions  care  should  be 
taken  to  postpone  as  long  as  possible  the  time  when 
the  use  of  such  fertilizers  will  become  necessary. 
Careful  tillage,  scientific  crop  rotation,  and  the 
use  of  barnyard  manure  should  be  practiced. 

The  Effect  of  Irrigation  on  Wheat  Production.  — 
Where  the  supply  of  moisture  is  deficient,  irriga- 
tion is  necessary.  This  is  the  case  in  many  of  the 
valleys  of  the  western  mountain  states.  Al- 

1  Crop  Reporter,  May,  1911. 


THE  WHEAT  INDUSTRY 

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FACTORS   IN  WHEAT  PRODUCTION     119 

though  the  cost  of  production  is  greatly  increased, 
the  yield  is  not  only  large  but  certain,  thus  making 
satisfactory  returns  possible.  This  method  in- 
volves very  intensive  farming  and  a  much  greater 
amount  of  manual  labor.  For  this  reason  acreages 
are  not  high.  Under  such  conditions  other  crops 
are  often  more  profitable  and  wheat  is  crowded 
out.  In  many  such  districts  it  has  given  way  to 
fruit  and  alfalfa. 

The  Cost  of  Production.  -  -  The  cost  of  produc- 
ing a  bushel  of  wheat  differs  greatly  in  the  various 
states.  The  table  on  p.  118,  made  up  of  states 
chosen  as  typical  of  the  different  sections,  clearly 
illustrates  this  fact. 

The  data  in  the  foregoing  table  are  of  interest 
chiefly  to  show  the  importance  of  several  factors,  - 
(i)  where  fertilizers  are  used  the  yield  is  relatively 
high  and  thus  compensates  for  the  extra  cost ;  (2) 
farm  values  per  bushel  are  highest  near  the  Eastern 
markets ;  (3)  land  rentals  are  lowest  where  yields 
are  low,  thus  offsetting,  in  part,  the  disadvantage ; 
(4)  land  rental  is  everywhere  an  important  factor 
in  the  cost  per  bushel  of  wheat  production. 

Special  investigations  were  carried  on  by  the 
Nebraska  Experiment  Station  in  1909  and  1910 
for  the  purpose  of  determining,  as  accurately  as 
possible,  the  cost  of  producing  wheat  in  that 
state.  The  results  are  given  in  the  following  de- 
tailed form : 


I2O 


THE  WHEAT  INDUSTRY 


Cost  of  Wheat  Production  in  Nebraska 


Year       

IQOQ 

iqio 

Average 

Number  of  replies    .     .     . 

139 

150 

289 

Interest  and  taxes  (or  rent) 
Plowing      

$4.463 
1.271 

$5.098 
1.272 

$4.780 

1.272 

Harrowing       

••"/  J 
.286 

•  27Q 

.282 

Discing       

.4.4.'? 

.4.O4. 

.4.23 

Seed       

•TTJ 

I.4.6l 

1.14.2 

I.4.OI 

Seeding       

.4.^1 

.^88 

.4.21 

Harvesting      

"TJJ 
2.4.1:6 

2.  IIO 

2.28l 

Interest  and   depreciation 
on  machinery 
Miscellaneous      .... 

*"TOW 

.505 
.727 

.685 

•734 

•595 
•731 

Total  cost  per  acre 
Yield  per  acre      .... 
Cost  per  bushel        .     .     . 

$12.067 

22.9  bu. 
52.7  cents 

$12.313 
21.6  bu. 
57  cents 

$12.188 

22.2  bu. 

54.9  cents 

Nebraska  Experiment  Station, 
Bulletin  No.  122. 


QUESTIONS  AND  EXERCISES 

1.  What  are  the  three  great   factors   to   be   considered 
in  wheat  production  ? 

2.  What  climatic  conditions  are  most  favorable  to  wheat 
production  ? 

3.  Where   is   irrigation   important?     What    are    its    ad- 
vantages and  disadvantages  ?     Suggest  reasons  why,  in  the 
United  States,  other  crops  are  grown  more  extensively  under 
irrigation  than  is  wheat. 

4.  What  are  weeds  ?     How  are  they  injurious  to  wheat  ? 

5.  How   do    rusts    and    smuts   injure   the   grain  ?     How 


FACTORS  IN  WHEAT  PRODUCTION     121 

may  these  pests  be  controlled  ?     Infer  the  significance  of 
the  term  rust. 

6.  In  general  what  is  true  of  the  size  of  farms  where 
commercial  wheat  is  produced  ? 

7.  What  relation  exists  between  density  of  population, 
size  of  farms,  and  export  of  wheat  ? 

8.  About  what  is  the  average  size  of  farms  in  your  locality 
or  state  ? 

9.  What  machinery  is  used  in  wheat  production  in  your 
home  region  ?     Find  cost  of  equipment  and  compare  with 
that  given  in  the  text. 

10.  Account  for  the  fact  that  wheat  may  be  a  profitable 
crop  in  regions  where  the  yield  is  very  low. 

11.  By  what  methods  may  the  wheat  yield  in  a  given 
locality  be  increased  ? 

12.  What  are  some  of  the  advantages  and  disadvantages 
of  extensive  wheat  farming  ? 

13.  By  inquiry  find  the  .approximate  cost  of  wheat  pro- 
duction in  your  locality  and  compare  with  that  given  in  the 
published  tables. 


CHAPTER  VIII 
MARKETING 

The  Methods  of  Marketing  Wheat.  —  Methods 
of  disposing  of  the  wheat  crop  differ  in  the  various 
countries.  The  exchange  of  wheat  for  flour  at 
small  country  mills  is  the  custom  in  many  of  the 
smaller  European  nations  and  even  to  some  ex- 
tent in  the  United  States,  although  rarely  is  this 
done  in  the  greater  wheat-producing  districts. 
The  exchange  or  trading  of  wheat  for  other  prod- 
ucts has  generally  given  way  to  selling ;  and  the 
selling  scheme,  i.e.,  marketing,  varies  from  an 
operation  which  is  very  simple  to  one  which  is 
very  complex. 

Wheat  sold  to  Local  Mill.  — The  simplest  method 
of  marketing  wheat  is  that  of  selling  to  the  local 
mills.  Flour  mills  are  quite  generally  found 
throughout  the  older  settled  wheat  districts,  yet 
in  most  cases  they  do  not  buy  directly  from  the 
farmers.  Direct  selling,  that  is,  selling  from 
producer  to  mill,  is  prevalent  now  in  this  country 
only  where  fields  are  small  and  where  the  total 
production  in  a  community  does  not  greatly 
exceed  the  consumption.  In  such  a  region  of  small 


122 


MARKETING  123 

fields  where  numerous  small  water  powers  are 
found,  the  building  of  many  mills  of  low  capacity 
serves  to  favor  direct  marketing.  Such  conditions 
exist  in  some  of  the  Eastern  states,  particularly  in 
the  Piedmont  and  Appalachian  provinces.  In 
these  localities  there  are  many  swift  streams  and 
good  dam  sites  which  render  cheap  power  avail- 
able for  operating  the  mills.  The  country,  which 
was  settled  early,  supports  a  fairly  dense  popula- 
tion and  farms  are  not,  as  a  rule,  very  large. 
Selling  directly  to  the  mill  is  not  only  the  simplest 
method  but  under  these  conditions  is  the  most 
economical.  But  wheat  thus  sold  does  not  enter 
largely  into  commerce.  The  local  mill  manufac- 
tures it  into  flour  which  goes  back  directly  to  the 
people  of  the  community.  Since  circulation  is 
chiefly  local,  little  or  no  railroad  transportation 
is  necessary. 

Shipment  to  Large  Mills  or  Markets.  —  Let  us  look 
at  a  contrast  to  the  conditions  just  described. 
The  great  wheat  areas  of  the  Central  and  Western 
states  and  of  Canada  are  very  different  from  those 
of  Virginia  and  Pennsylvania.  Here  a  large  sur- 
plus of  wheat  is  grown  each  year  for  which  distant 
markets  must  be  sought.  In  the  newer  portions 
there  are  few  mills,  and  even  in  the  older  sections 
the  supply  of  wheat  far  exceeds  the  local  demand. 
This  has  caused  the  development  of  large  milling 
centers  and  of  markets  so  located  that  they  are 


124  THE  WHEAT  INDUSTRY 

convenient  for  export  purposes  or  that  they  may 
supply  the  trade  of  Eastern  sections.  The  farmer 
can  sell  to  these  distant  markets  either  directly 
or  through  marketing  agencies  which  have  sprung 
up,  usually  in  the  form  of  elevator  companies. 
Let  us  consider  the  processes  involved  in  each  of 
these  two  plans. 

Direct  Marketing.  —  Farmers  who  live  but  a 
short  distance  from  town  are  inclined  to  haul 
directly  from  the  thresher,  since  only  a  small  force 
of  men  is  necessary  to  handle  the  grain  thus. 
From  farms  which  are  6  to  10  miles  from  town  this 
custom  does  not  exist.  Here  the  large  number  of 
haulers  needed  because  of  the  longer  distances 
involved  makes  it  difficult  to  obtain  a  sufficient 
force  of  men  to  dispose  of  the  wheat  as  fast  as  it 
is  threshed. 

In  direct  marketing  the  hauler  loads  the  wheat 
into  the*  cars  by  hand,  by  means  of  a  scoop  shovel 
holding  about  a  fourth  of  a  bushel.  With  the 
shovel  he  throws  the  wheat  from  the  wagon  into 
the  car.  This  is  hard  and  tedious  labor.  The 
loaded  cars  are  then  sent  to  the  large  milling  or 
market  centers,  which,  depending  on  the  locality, 
may  be  Minneapolis,  Chicago,  Omaha,  Kansas 
City,  or  St.  Louis.  When  the  car  arrives  at  its 
destination,  the  purchasing  company  pays  the  cur- 
rent market  price  and  remits  by  draft  to  the  sender. 

The  theoretical  advantage  of  this  plan  is  the 


MARKETING 


125 


elimination  of  the  grain  buyers,  a  class  of  men  who 
are  not  producers  but  who  profit  by  handling  the 
wheat.  In  spite  of  its  theoretical  advantage  the 
plan  is  not  generally  followed  in  practice.  The 
reasons  for  this  are:  (i)  results  have  not  proved 


FIG.  65.  —  Hauling  wheat  to  market.     Sometimes  the  family  goes  along. 

better  than  when  sold  through  organized  dealers  ; 

(2)  slower  returns  and  greater  risks  are  involved  ; 

(3)  there  is  an  inability  to  sell  in  less  than  carload 
lots ;    and   (4)   manual  labor  is   necessary  where 
car-loading  devices  are  not  provided. 


126 


THE  WHEAT  INDUSTRY 


Marketing  through  Elevator  Companies.  • — The  sell- 
ing plan  followed  generally  in  the  more  important 
wheat  regions  of  the  United  States  and  Canada 
is  through  the  elevator  companies.  The  farmers 
take  their  grain  to  the  nearest  town.  There  eleva- 
tors have  been 
built  alongside 
the  railroad 
tracks.  These 
are  so  arranged 
that  the  load  can 
be  hauled  into 
the  building, 
weighed,  and 
then  dumped 
into  a  pit  whence 
bucket  elevators 
convey  the  grain 
into  storage  bins 
or  cars.  The 
whole  process  of 
weighing  loaded 
wagon,  unload- 
ing, and  weigh- 
ing empty  wagon  can  be  accomplished  in  four  or 
five  minutes.  The  elevator  is  also  provided  with 
a  screening  and  fanning  apparatus  which  removes 
the  dirt  and  chaff  from  the  grain  and  thus  improves 
its  market  qualities.  The  storage  capacities  of 


FIG.  66.  —  The  elevator  is  a  tall,  towerlike 
building. 


MARKETING  127 

country  elevators  usually  vary  from  8000  to 
20,000  bushels,  although  some  are  much  larger. 
Gasoline  or  steam  engines  are  used  as  power  for 
operating  the  machinery. 

The  elevators  are  in  charge  of  a  buyer,  known  as 
a  grain  dealer,  who  grades  each  farmer's  wheat 
and  pays  him  as  soon  as  it  is  delivered.  This 
transaction  completed,  the  farmer's  direct  interest 
ceases.  He  takes  his  money  to  use  for  living  ex- 
penses, and  the  surplus  is  often  used  for  buying 
equipment  to  raise  more  wheat.  He  buys  more 
land  or  more  up-to-date  machinery,  and  in  either 
case  looks  forward  to  increased  production.  He 
has  made  his  contribution  to  commerce. 

The  Market  Grades  of  Wheat.  — The  price  received 
by  the  farmer  depends  somewhat  on  the  quality 
of  the  wheat.  The  larger  market  centers  have 
adopted  standard  requirements  for  different  grades 
so  that  the  wheat  of  commerce  is  now  purchased 
and  handled  as  No.  i,  2,  3,  4,  or  Ungraded.  It 
is  also  classified  as  to  whether  it  is  Spring  or 
Winter  wheat  and  Hard  or  Soft.  This  classifica- 
tion further  includes  in  a  general  way  the  color,  - 
white  or  red.  Thus  a  typical  market  description 
for  Kansas  wheat  would  be  No.  2  Hard  Winter 
Red. 

The  grade  requirements  are  not  uniform  in  all 
countries  of  the  world,  and  not  even  closely  uni- 
form in  the  different  market  centers  of  the  United 


128  THE  WHEAT  INDUSTRY 

States.  In  a  general  way,  however,  the  following 
is  considered  a  fair  statement  of  grade  require- 
ments, and  illustrative  of  differences  between  the 
commercial  grades  : 

Classification  of  Wheat  adopted  at  the  Merchants'  Exchange, 

St.  Louis 

Choice  White.  —  Bright,  sound,  dry,  plump,  and  well-cleaned 

pure  white  winter  wheat  and  to  weigh  at  least  62  pounds 

per  measured  bushel. 
No.  I  White.  —  Sound,  dry,  well-cleaned  pure  white  winter 

wheat  to  weigh  at  least  60  pounds  per  measured  bushel. 
No.  2  White.  —  Sound,  dry,  white  winter  wheat  reasonably 

cleaned,  to  weigh  not  less  than  59  pounds  per  measured 

bushel. 
Choice  Red.  —  Bright,  sound,  plump,  dry,  and  well-cleaned 

red  or  red   and  white  mixed  winter  wheat  to  weigh  at 

least  62  pounds  per  measured  bushel. 
No.  i  Red.  —  Sound,  well-cleaned,  dry-red  or  red  and  white 

mixed  winter  wheat  free  from  rye,  to  weigh  not  less  than 

60  pounds  per  measured  bushel. 
No.  2  Red.  —  Includes  all  sound,  dry,  reasonably  cleaned,  red 

or  red  and  white  mixed  winter  wheat  below  No.  I  red  and 

to  weigh  not  less  than  59  pounds  per  measured  bushel. 
No.    3    Red.  —  To    include    dry  red,   white    or    rrfixed,    or 

bleached  winter  wheat  free  from  must,  to  weigh  not  less 

than  57  pounds  per  measured  bushel. 

Grading  the  Wheat.  — The  local  buyer  in  order  to 
determine  its  grade  is  usually  required  to  test  a 
typical  sample  of  each  load.  This  is  done  by  tak- 
ing handfuls  of  wheat  from  different  parts  of  the 


MARKETING  129 

load  and  filling  a  standard  measure.  The  correct 
amount  is  obtained  by  heaping  the  measure  and 
scraping  off  the  excess  by  means  of  a  straight- 
edge. The  vessel  used  is  generally  in  the  form  of 
a  cylinder  about  $f  inches  deep,  5f  inches  in 
diameter,  with  a  capacity  of  two  quarts.  It  is 
so  graduated  that  weighing  it  by  the  steelyard 
scheme,  the  reading  is  given  in  pounds  per  bushel. 
The  volume  of  a  bushel  is  2150.42  cubic  inches  and 
the  standard  weight  in  most  states  is  60  pounds. 
Where  the  weight  of  a  volume  bushel  exceeds  60 
pounds,  the  wheat  is  over  weight,  where  it  weighs 
less  than  60  pounds  it  is  under  weight.  Referred 
to  this  same  standard,  wheat  is  known  as  heavy 
or  light. 

In  order  to  be  full  weight,  the  grains  must  be 
of  good  size  and  quality  and  the  wheat  dry  and 
free  from  dust,  chaff,  and  bits  of  straw.  Since 
cleanliness  is  very  important  in  affecting  weight 
and  appearance,  and  since  both  of  these  facts 
are  considered  in  determining  the  market  grade, 
the  work  of  the  thresher  should  be  well  done.  In 
many  instances  the  wheat  delivered  by  the  farmer 
to  the  elevator,  because  of  insufficient  cleaning, 
lacks  just  a  little  of  belonging  to  a  higher  grade  and 
a  lower  price  results.  In  this  event  the  grade  can 
be  raised  by  recleaning  in  the  elevator,  and  the 
expense  of  the  extra  work  is  more  than  met  by  the 
increased  price  which  is  obtained  for  it.  The 


1 30  THE  WHEAT  INDUSTRY 

grain  is  bought  at  the  grade  shown  by  test,  which 
grade  the  buyer,  after  the  grain  is  his  property, 
will  try  to  improve.  The  reason  for  this  appears 
when  we  know  that  each  grade  usually  has  a 
market  value  of  two  to  three  cents  per  bushel  above 
that  of  the  next  lower  grade. 

While  grading  wheat  follows  general  rules,  ex- 
perience is  necessary  to  become  proficient  in  the 
work.  Much  depends  on  the  judgment  of  the 
buyer  since  he  must  be  fair  both  to  the  seller  and 
to  the  purchasing  company. 

The  Ownership  of  Elevators.  —  In  the  earlier 
years  the  elevators  were  owned  and  operated  by 
individuals.  Many  were  ex-farmers  who  pre- 
ferred business  to  active  farming  and  thought  it 
an  easy  way  to  make  money.  Others  were  bus- 
iness men  attracted  to  that  line  of  work.  Some 
were  highly  successful,  and  those  who  lacked 
business  sagacity  or  were  careless  in  management 
failed.  Competition  between  rival  concerns  in 
the  same  town  or  in  near-by  towns  forced  operators 
to  buy  on  very  close  margins.  The  buyer  pur- 
chased independently,  making  himself  the  owner 
of  the  wheat  in  transit  to  central  market.  If 
the  price  advanced  he  was  the  gainer ;  if  it  fell  he 
suffered  loss.  Buying  thus  became  intimately 
related  to  market  tendencies,  and  many  men  failed 
because  they  did  not  guard  against  falling  prices 
by  buying  with  sufficient  margin.  When  prices 


MARKETING 


were  rising  there  was  a  tendency  to  buy  on  a 
margin  so  low  that  rise  in  price  was  necessary  to 
avoid  loss  on  the  transaction.  Sometimes  the 
expected  advance  failed  to  come  and  the  dealer 
suffered  serious  loss.  When  a  sharp  rise  occurred 


FIG.  67.  —  Loading  freight  cars  for  shipment  from  local  elevators  to  central  or 
terminal  markets.     In  this  case  the  elevator  machinery  was  operated  by  steam. 

the  profit  was  large  and  this  often  stimulated  a 
speculative  desire  which  later  frequently  led  to 
recklessness  and  disaster. 

Individual  ownership  of  elevators  resulted  in 
close  buying,  and  hence  full  returns  to  the  wheat 
grower.  The  competitive  conditions,  however, 


132  THE  WHEAT  INDUSTRY 

did  not  endure,  for  the  successful  operation  of  one 
elevator  enabled  the  owner  to  buy  another  from 
some  one  less  fortunate  and  soon  the  advantage 
of  organization  became  apparent.  Companies 
were  formed  which  bought  all  the  elevators  along 
a  given  line  of  railroad  or  in  a  certain  territory. 
These  became  known  as  "  line  elevators."  They 
were  managed  by  men  who  were  expert  in  following 
market  conditions  and  who  were  able  to  find  the 
best  places  to  sell.  The  large  volume  of  grain  at 
their  disposal  was  of  advantage  not  only  in  securing 
the  best  prices  but  also  in  obtaining  cars  when 
needed. 

A  local  manager  was  placed  in  charge  of  each 
elevator.  His  business  was  to  weigh  the  grain, 
look  after  the  mechanical  work,  and  submit  daily 
reports  on  the  business  done.  He  had  no  dis- 
cretion as  to  prices,  for  daily  instructions  were 
sent  from  company  headquarters.  In  the  event 
of  sudden  changes  in  the  market,  telegraphic 
instructions  were  sent.  An  important  task  of 
the  manager  in  this  case  was  to  keep  the  good  will 
of  the  farmers. 

Conservative  buying,  close  watch  of  market 
conditions,  and  keen  business  methods  through- 
out are  strong  arguments  in  favor  of  the  exten- 
sive elevator  companies.  In  some  localities  all 
the  elevators  passed  into  the  hands  of  one  com- 
pany ;  and,  since,  having  become  accustomed  to 


MARKETING  133 

selling  to  the  elevator,  the  farmers  would  not  sell 
by  direct  shipment,  the  company  was  thus  given 
a  virtual  buying  monopoly.  The  elevator,  once 
established  in  the  community,  became  a  public 
service  necessity.  Monopoly  of  ownership  often 
resulted  in  the  charging  of  excessive  rates, --in 
other  words,  buying  at  too  high  margin.  This, 
of  course,  resulted  in  giving  the  producer  a  lower 
price  than  that  to  which  he  was  entitled.  Indi- 
viduals were  unable  to  remedy  this  since  they 
could  not  compete  with  the  powerful  organizations. 
Many  companies  never  abused  their  advantages 
and  were  content  with  the  profits  resulting  from 
good  business  management.  The  abuses  of  some, 
however,  placed  nearly  all  of  them  under  suspicion. 
Out  of  this  condition  grew  the  organization  by 
farmers  of  local  companies  which  built  so-called 
"  farmers'  elevators."  Since  the  strength  of  the 
concern  lay  in  its  membership,  shares  of  stock 
were  sold  to  as  many  farmers  in  a  community  as 
possible.  The  business  of  the  local  companies 
was  placed  in  charge  of  a  board  of  directors  who 
hired  a  man  experienced  in  grain  dealing  as  man- 
ager. To  him  was  intrusted  the  working  out  of 
details  subject  to  the  approval  of  the  directors. 
Each  subscriber  pledged  himself,  if  prices  were 
equal,  to  sell  to  his  own  elevator.  If  the  line 
elevator  paid  higher  prices  than  the  farmers' 
elevator  he  would  sell  there ;  in  such  case  he 


134  THE  WHEAT  INDUSTRY 

would  probably  pay  a  small  percentage  of  the 
gain  to  his  own  company.  This  served  to  estab- 
lish a  fund  which  would  tide  it  over  dull  periods. 
This  fund  was  important,  since  it  was  planned 
that  grain  should  always  be  bought  at  a  reasonable 
profit  and  never  at  a  loss.  These  conditions 
would  insure  competitive  conditions  for  the  line 
elevators.  Although,  early  in  the  days  of  organ- 
ization, many  farmers'  elevators  failed  because  of 
poor  management,  the  general  effect  has  been 
good.  .  At  present  they  are  usually  successful 
throughout  the  Central  states.  Experience  and 
organization  have  rendered  them  efficient.  Com- 
petition is  not  now  between  individual  elevators 
but  between  strong  rival  companies,  and  business 
methods  have  been  greatly  improved.  Out  of 
this  condition  greater  economy  and- efficiency  have 
resulted. 

Railway  Transportation.  -  -  Wheat  in  the  ele- 
vator or  in  the  cars  is  an  article  of  commerce. 
Usually  it  has  passed  from  the  ownership  of  the 
producer  to  that  of  an  agent  who  has  in  turn 
intrusted  it  to  the  carrier.  Railways  haul  the 
wheat  to  mills,  to  central  markets,  or  to  terminal 
elevators.  These  elevators  are  usually  situated 
where  water  transportation  can  first  be  employed. 
This  carrying  work  is  spoken  of  under  two  heads, 
the  short  haul  and  the  long  haul.  The  former 
includes  shipments  to  local  mills  and  from  small 


MARKETING  135 

towns  to  the  central  markets  ;  and  the  latter,  the 
shipments  from  the  central  markets  to  the  terminal 
elevators.  The  typical  central  markets  for  wheat 
in  North  America  are  Winnipeg,  Minneapolis, 
Omaha,  Kansas  City,  and  St.  Louis.  These  are 
all  inland  cities  situated  in  the  wheat  country  and 
are  focal  points  of  numerous  railroads.  The 
wheat  in  carload  lots  is  shipped  from  adjacent 
territory,  hence  the  term  short  haul.  From  these 
cities  it  is  sent  by  trainloads  to  terminal  markets 
or  export  centers.  This  involves  greater  distances 
and  so  the  term  long  haul  is  applied.  The  prin- 
cipal terminal  cities  in  North  America  are  San 
Francisco,  Portland,  and  Seattle  on  the  west  coast ; 
Quebec,  New  York,  Philadelphia,  and  Baltimore 
on  the  east ;  and  Galveston  and  New  Orleans  on 
the  south.  Because  they  also  have  a  large  export 
trade  by  water  route,  Duluth,  Chicago,  and 
Buffalo  are  called  inland  terminals.  The  terminal 
cities  which  are  located  near  the  great  wheat- 
producing  districts  likewise  naturally  receive  a 
great  deal  of  grain  by  short  haul. 

If  distance  is  considered,  the  short  haul  rates 
comparatively  are  much  higher  than  those  of  the 
long  haul.  For  instance,  the  rate  from  central 
Nebraska  to  Omaha  is  8  cents  per  bushel  for  a 
distance  of  about  200  miles,  while  the  rate  from 
Omaha  to  Galveston  is  only  11.7  cents  per  bushel 
for  a  distance  of  1338  miles. 


136 


THE  WHEAT  INDUSTRY 


MARKETING 


Water  Transportation.  -  -  The  Great  Lakes  High- 
way. -  -  The  Great  Lakes,  connected  with  the 
Atlantic  Ocean  by  rivers  and  canals,  constitute 
the  greatest  inland  water  highway  in  the  world. 
It  reaches  deep  into  the  interior  of  North  Amer- 
ica and  practically  touches  the  heart  of  the 


FIG.  69.  —  A  steamer  carrying  wheat  for  export. 

wheat  region.  Lake  Superior  furnishes  an  easy 
outlet  for  the  wheat  areas  of  south  central 
Canada  and  the  north  central  United  States, 
while  Lake  Michigan  competes  with  the  Gulf  of 
Mexico  for  the  trade  of  Oklahoma,  Kansas,  and 
Nebraska.  The  Great  Lakes,  connected  with 
Quebec  through  the  St.  Lawrence,  and  with  New 


138  THE  WHEAT  INDUSTRY 

York  City  through  the  Erie  Canal  and  the  tidal 
Hudson  River,  are  thus  linked  with  the  two  east 
coast  cities  of  greatest  exporting  importance. 
They  serve  to  bring  the  markets  of  Europe  nearer 
American  producers  since  water  freight  rates,  even 
where  canals  are  used,  are  much  cheaper  than 
those  of  the  railroads.  This  is  clearly  shown  by 
comparison  :  for  instance,  the  all  rail  rate  on  a 
bushel  of  wheat  from  Chicago  to  New  York  City 
in  1912  was  9.73  cents  ;  by  lake  and  canal  it  was 
5.38  cents. 

The  Mississippi  River. — The  Mississippi  River 
is  the  only  other  inland  waterway  in  the  United 
States  of  any  great  commercial  importance  to  the 
wheat  industry.  It  has,  however,  not  been  able 
to  enter  into  very  serious  competition  with  the 
railroads.  This  is  probably  due  to  the  facts  that 
a  comparatively  short  haul  is  involved,  an  in- 
direct route  is  necessitated,  and  a  considerable 
railroad  haul  is  at  any  rate  necessary  in  order  to 
bring  the  wheat  to  river  ports.  In  other  words 
lack  of  navigable  tributaries  reaching  into  the 
wheat  districts  has  proved  a  serious  drawback  to 
the  commercial  importance  of  the  Mississippi  River. 

Ocean  Routes.  —  For  wheat,  as  for  other  agricul- 
tural products,  the  ocean  is  the  great  highway  of 
water  transportation.  Since  Europe  furnishes  the 
market  for  the  greater  part  of  the  wheat  exported 
from  the  countries  of  the  western  hemisphere,  the 


MARKETING  139 

Atlantic  Ocean  has  the  distinction  of  being  the 
greatest  waterway  in  the  world  for  this  cereal. 
The  freight  steamers  which  are  used  in  hauling  the 
grain  are  immense  slow-moving  boats.  They  are 
loaded  at  the  terminal  elevators  by  chutes  through 
which  the  grain  slides  into  the  hold  of  the  vessel  and 
are  unloaded  at  the  European  seaports  by  electric 
shovels  operating  from  cranes.  But  little  hand 
labor  is  used  and  expenses  are  kept  at  a  minimum. 
All  this  makes  possible  very  low  rates  in  compar- 
ison with  railway  charges.  The  freight  rate  from 
New  York  to  Liverpool  varies  from  3  to  7  cents 
per  bushel.  From  New  Orleans  to  Liverpool  it  is 
from  6  to  15  cents  per  bushel.  Wide  differences 
in  rates  for  the  same  haul  are  due  to  a  lack  of 
organization  of  ocean  traffic.  Rates  are  not  reg- 
ulated by  any  commissions.  If  a  ship  finds  diffi- 
culty in  obtaining  a  cargo,  it  will  reduce  rates.  If 
shipping  is  active,  rates  are  raised.  Sometimes 
wheat  has  been  carried  from  New  York  to  Euro- 
pean ports  without  charge  because  outward 
bound  vessels  had  no  cargoes  in  sight.  It  was 
cheaper  to  haul  wheat  free  than  to  buy  gravel  to 
serve  as  ballast.  This  uncertainty  of  ocean 
freight  rates  does  not  help  the  farmer.  Market 
prices  always  take  into  account  the  highest  freight 
rate  that  is  likely  to  be  charged.  If  lower  rates 
can  be  secured,  the  exporter  is  the  gainer,  not  the 
wheat  producer. 


140  THE  WHEAT  INDUSTRY 

The  Terminal  Elevators. — At  each  of  the 
central  and  terminal  markets  immense  elevators 
have  been  built  whose  chief  business  is  storage. 
They  also  serve  to  transfer  grain  from  railroad 
cars  to  freight  vessels.  With  their  storage  capac- 
ities, which  vary  from  500,000  bushels  to  2,300,000 
bushels,  they  serve  as  great  reservoirs  into  which, 
during  the  market  rush  following  the  harvest,  the 
wheat  can  flow  and  be  held  ;  and  from  which  it 
can  move  as  the  milling  and  export  trade  demands. 
Companies  operate  these  elevators  for  the  profits 
which  are  derived  from  storage  charges.  They 
do  not  take  the  chances  of  speculation.  When 
the  elevator  runs  short  of  stored  grain,  the  com- 
pany is  likely  to  buy  enough  to  refill,  but  it  im- 
mediately sells  for  future  delivery  with  storage 
charges  added.  This  is  called  covering.  It  not 
only  removes  the  company  from  danger  of 
loss  due  to  falling  prices,  but  also  prevents  the 
chance  of  gain  as  a  result  of  advance.  The  grain 
may  then  change  ownership  many  times  and  still 
remain  in  the  same  elevator.  Sometimes  it  re- 
mains in  storage  in  this  way  for  a  year  or  more. 

The  Wheat  Exchange.  -  -  The  buying  and  sell- 
ing of  wheat  for  future  delivery  has  given  rise  at 
various  places  to  speculative  markets.  The  most 
famous  of  these  in  this  country  is  the  Chicago 
Board  of  Trade.  Here  many  forms  of  farm 
products  are  handled,  but  wheat  because  of  its 


MARKETING  141 

world  relation  is  probably  the  most  typical.  A 
part  of  the  exchange  dealing  with  wheat  is  known 
as  the  wheat  pit.  The  big  wheat  and  flour  men 
as  well  as  the  brokers  dealing  there  are  in  close 
touch  with  all  the  wheat  countries  of  the  world. 
During  the  critical  period  preceding  and  during 
the  harvest  season,  telegraphic  reports  give  them 
detailed  accounts  of  the  wheat  outlook.  They 
are  informed  of  approaching  storms  that  may 
injure  the  crop.  During  all  the  growing  season 
influences  which  tend  to  injure  or  improve  the 
wheat  are  constantly  reported.  The  price  on  the 
exchange  is  thus  related  not  only  to  the  visible 
supply,  the  stores  of  known  wheat,  but  also  to 
general  world  prospects  for  the  future.  Such  a 
detail  as  the  matter  of  prospective  change  in 
ocean  freight  rates  to  Liverpool,  Constantinople, 
or  Hong  Kong  will  cause  a  price  fluctuation.  The 
dealers  in  the  pit  who  are  hoping  for  advance  in 
prices  are  known  as  bulls,  those  who  wish  for  de- 
cline as  bears.  If  a  man  has  bought  wheat  and 
desires  to  sell  he  naturally  seeks  an  advance, 
hence  he  joins  the  bulls.  On  the  other  hand,  a 
man,  provided  he  puts  up  a  sum  of  money  to 
guarantee  the  contract,  may  sell  without  actually 
owning  any  wheat.  Then  he  may  sell  a  quantity 
of  wheat  at  a  high  price  when  he  expects  the 
market  to  break  or  decline.  This  he  hopes  to 
buy  back  later  at  a  lower  price.  Such  a  deal 


I42  THE  WHEAT  INDUSTRY 

depends  for  its  success  on  lowering  of  prices  and 
the  group  of  men  conducting  it  are  known  as 
bears.  All  this  suggests,  as  is  actually  the  case, 
that  much  more  wheat  is  bought  and  sold  than  is 
ever  raised.  A  large  percentage  of  the  sales 
conducted  by  the  grain  exchange  is  only  on  paper. 
Very  little  actual  wheat  changes  hands.  Yet  the 
relation  of  the  exchange  to  the  markets  is  close 
since  any-  of  the  deals  which  are  made  could  be 
carried  out  should  the  seller  prefer  to  dispose  of 
the  real  commodity. 

Conditions  which  affect  the  price  of  wheat  are 
so  numerous  that  dealing  in  wheat  futures  is  as 
uncertain  as  that  of  stocks  and  bonds.  Since  the 
uncertainty  has  its  fascination  for  many  business 
men,  there  are  times  in  the  wheat  pit  of  the 
Chicago  Board  of  Trade  which  are  as  exciting  as 
those  in  the  Stock  Exchange  of  New  York  City. 

QUESTIONS  AND  EXERCISES 

1.  Why  is  exchange   of  wheat   for   flour   not   practiced 
much  in  the  great  wheat-producing  regions  ? 

2.  What  conditions  in  a  region  favor  the  development 
of  numerous  small  mills  ? 

3.  Explain  how  short  distances  to  market  favor  the  sell- 
ing of  wheat  direct  from  the  thresher. 

4.  What  difficulties  have  been  experienced   by  farmers 
who  have  tried  shipping  direct  to  distant  markets  ? 

5.  How  is  grain  graded  for  market  purposes  ? 

6.  What  are  the  market  grades  of  wheat  ? 


MARKETING  143 

7.  Explain  the  functions  of  the  elevator  in  wheat  market- 
ing. 

8.  What   conditions   led   to    the    organization    of    line 
elevators?     What    advantages    can    you    see    in    such    an 
arrangement  ? 

9.  What  are  the  farmers'  elevators  ?     What  causes  have 
led  to  the  general   organization   of  farmers'  elevator  com- 
panies ? 

10.  What  is  meant  by  the  terms  short  haul  and  long  haul 
as  applied  to  freight  ? 

11.  What  are  the  chief  central  wheat  markets  in  North 
America  ?     Where  are  they  located  with  respect  to  the  wheat- 
producing  regions  ? 

12.  What  are  the  principal  terminal  cities  for  wheat  ex- 
ports in  North  America  ? 

13.  What  ocean  is  of  first  importance  in  the  wheat  trade 
of  the  world  ?     Why  ? 

14.  Of  what  importance  are  the  terminal  elevators  in  the 
marketing  of  wheat  ? 

15.  Briefly  explain  buying  and  selling  in  the  wheat  ex- 
change. 


CHAPTER   IX 
MILLING 

The  Milling  of  Wheat. -- Perhaps  no  part  of 
the  story  of  wheat  is  more  fascinating  than  that 
of  milling.  Very  little  whole  wheat  is  used  for 
food.  Practically  all  of  it  is  ground  in  some 
manner,  and  the  parts  of  the  grain  are  separated 
before  it  is  prepared  directly  for  the  table.  The 
processes  of  making  flour  and  other  wheat  products 
are  exceptionally  interesting.  This  interest  may 
be  due,  in  part,  to  the  fact  that  milling  was  the 
operation  in  the  wheat  industry  which  first  was 
done  outside  the  home.  The  necessity  of  more 
power  for  the  operation  of  the  mill  than  could  be 
supplied  in  the  home  favored  the  establishment 
of  village  mills,  and  this  method  very  early  became 
the  prevailing  form  of  the  industry.  These  mills 
were  usually  located  where  power  could  be  derived 
from  a  stream  or  from  the  wind,  although,  some- 
times, cattle  or  horses  were  used.  They  came  to 
be  known  as  gristmills,  because  the  miller  was 
paid  by  taking  as  toll  a  part  of  the  grain,  giving 
back  to  each  customer  the  rest  of  his  wheat  as 

144 


MILLING 

flour  and  bran.     The  miller  thus  became  an  im- 
portant and  respected  personage  in  the  community, 


FIG.  70.  —  An  old  mill  by  a  stream. 


the  people  being  dependent  upon  him  for  an 
essential  food.  Then,  too,  the  stability  of  his 
business  usually  made  him  well-to-do.  Many 


146  THE  WHEAT  INDUSTRY 

writers  have  eulogized  the  miller  and  given  voice 
to  his  sturdy  character.  The  familiar  Miller  of 
the  Dee  is  one  of  the  many  examples,  where  an 
author  has  made  clear  the  popular  figure's  char- 
acter and  standing. 

"There  dwelt  a  miller,  hale  and  bold, 

Beside  the  river  Dee ; 

He  wrought  and  sang  from  morn  till  night, 
No  lark  more  blithe  than  he." 

The  poet  tells  of  the  miller's  discussion  with  the 
king  in  which  the  king  says, 

"'Thy  mealy  cap  is  worth  my  crown, 

Thy  mill  my  kingdom's  fee ! 
Such  men  as  thou  art  England's  boast, 
O  Miller  of  the  Dee  !" 

Modern  methods  of  handling  the  wheat  and  the 
development  of  a  variety  of  industries  has  pro- 
duced many  changes  and  has  lessened  the  old 
close  relation  among  producer,  consumer,  and 
miller.  Most  farmers  now  sell  their  wheat  to 
grain  buyers  and  in  turn  buy  flour  from  the  stores 
as  they  need  it.  Gristmills  are,  however,  still 
operated  in  some  sections.  Peculiarly  enough, 
the  character  of  the  miller  has  not  changed  greatly 
and  he  is  still  held  in  much  the  same  regard  as  of 
old. 

Primitive  Milling.  -  -  The  Handstone.  —  It  is  in- 
teresting to  learn  something  of  the  stage  of  devel- 


MILLING 


opment  of  different  peoples  as  indicated  by  their 
methods  of  milling.  The  handstone  is  used  by 
some  Indian  tribes.  Here  the  grain  is  placed 
in  a  hollow  stone  and  the  women  pound  it  with 
another  stone.  The  grain  by  this  method  is  not 
reduced  to  a  powder,  but  is  merely  broken  into 
rough  fragments. 
This  is  undoubt- 
edly one  of  the 
most  primitive 
methods  and 
seems  to  be  the 
one  early  used 
by  all  peoples, 
for  specimens  of 
these  handstones 
are  found  in 
many  parts  of 
the  world.  Some 
tribes  use  two 
stones  so  shaped 
that  they  may 
be  easily  handled.  The  crusher  is  oval  and  the 
container  is  rounded  and  deep.  When  of  such 
forms  they  are  called  the  mortar  and  pestle.  The 
latter  sometimes  has  a  handle  made  of  wood.  This 
form  of  mill  was  used  for  many  years  by  the  early  set- 
tlers of  Plymouth,  Massachusetts.  In  these  primi- 
tive methods  the  milling  was  done  by  the  women. 


FIG.  71.  —  The  handstone  used  in  grinding  wheat. 


148 


THE  WHEAT  INDUSTRY 


The  Quern.  —  In  parts  of  Europe  and  Asia  the 
quern  is  used.  This  is  an  improvement  over  the 
handstone  and  also  over  the  mortar  and  pestle. 
In  this  method  the  two  stdnes  are  mechanically 
united  so  that  the  upper  stone  fits  into  and  revolves 
upon  the  lower.  A  hole  is  bored  in  the  side  of  the 

upper  stone  and 
a  handle  inserted 
by  which  it  is 
turned.  An- 
other opening  at 
the  top  admits 
the  grain,  which 
passes  through  a 
hole  to  the  lower 
stone.  There,  as 
the  upper  stone 
is  turned  in  a 
half  circle,  the 
grain  is  crushed. 
This  motion 
likewise  works 
the  crushed  grain 
to  the  edges,  whence  it  drops  into  a  bowl  or  other 
container.  In  early  times  the  women  usually  did  this 
work  with  the  smaller  querns,  while  cattle  were  used 
to  turn  the  larger  ones.  This  method  came  into 
general  use  about  the  dawn  of  the  Christian  era. 
It  was  the  first  British  flour  mill  and  is  also  men- 


FIG.  72.  —  The  quern. 


MILLING  149 

tioned  in  early  American  history.  The  handstone, 
mortar  and  pestle,  and  quern,  thus,  all  belong  to 
the  type  of  mill  in  which  grinding  is  the  method 
of  reduction  and  human  energy  is  practically  the 
only  power.  In  ancient  times  the  work  in  each 
method  was  largely  done  by  women.  Later  on, 
however,  slaves  and  criminals  were  used. 

Buhr -stone  Mills.  -  -  Buhrstones,  pr  millstones, 
used  by  small  mills  in  almost  every  country,  repre- 
sent another  type  of  milling.  By  this  method 
the  grain  is  cut  and  crushed  and  emerges  as  a 
much  finer  product.  The  surface  of  each  stone  is 
cut  so  that  the  grooves  of  one  fit  into  those  of  the 
other,  and  by  the  sharp  edges  of  these  grooves  the 
grain  is  cut  to  pieces.  The  power  used  is  from 
cattle,  wind,  or  water.  Sometimes  they  are  run 
by  steam  power  or  electricity.  These  mills  are 
larger  than  the  quern  and  others  previously  de- 
scribed. The  grain  is  ground  for  the  village  or 
community,  the  miller  charging  a  toll  for  grinding. 

These  simple  mills  were  common  in  the  early 
history  of  the  United  States,  and  the  improved 
gristmill  was  the  prevailing  type  until  about  1880. 
Small  mills  were  located  wherever  water  power 
was  available.  Towns  near  power  sites  served  as 
locations  for  the  larger  ones.  In  general,  mills 
were  scattered  and  they  were  of  moderate  size. 
As  population  and  wheat  production  increased,  it 
became  necessary  to  produce  more  flour.  Mills 


ISO  THE  WHEAT  INDUSTRY 

with  several  pairs  of  stones  then  became  common. 
During  the  period  immediately  after  the  Revolu- 
tion, the  flour  mills  of  Delaware  were  among  the 
best  known.  Twelve  mills  upon  the  Brandy- 
wine,  with  25  pairs  of  buhrstones,  ground  400,000 
bushels  a  year.  Improved  methods  of  handling 
the  grain  and  flour  were  also  invented.  About 
1785  the  elevator  and  conveyer  were  introduced, 
thus  eliminating  much  hand  labor.  Development 
was  so  rapid  that  in  1808  Pittsburg  had  a  steam 
mill  with  three  pairs  of  buhrstones. 

The  Development  of  Modern  Milling.  —  The 
roller  mills,  which  use  the  gradual  reduction  pro- 
cess in  the  manufacture  of  flour,  represent  the 
modern  type.  Though  they  were  not  introduced 
until  about  1880,  they  have  now  come  into  gen- 
eral use  in  all  the  great  milling  centers  of  the 
world.  This  process  of  milling  originated  in 
Austria,  and  it  is  interesting  to  review  the  prob- 
lems that  led  to  its  adoption  in  the  United  States. 
In  the  old  processes,  the  millstones  were  at  first 
set  very  close  together  so  as  to  produce  as  much 
flour  as  possible  at  one  grinding.  This  produced 
friction  and  heat  and  often  brought  about  chemical 
changes  which  injured  the  color,  taste,  and  quality 
of  the  flour.  Wheat,  which  was  hard  and  rich  in 
gluten,  could  scarcely  be  used  at  all,  for  it  was 
difficult  to  separate  the  flour  from  the  bran.  The 
soft  starchy  wheats  thus  brought  the  high  prices 


MILLING  151 

since  when  they  were  used  the  bran  was  more 
easily  separated  and  the  flour  was  whiter. 

The  opening  of  new  wheat  regions  in  the  North- 
west, where  large  quantities  of  hard  spring  wheat 
were  produced,  increased  the  demand  for  other 
milling  methods.  A  method  was  required  which 
would  produce  a  good  flour  from  their  product. 
The  first  step  toward  this  end  was  the  invention 
of  the  middlings  purifier.  This  is  a  method, 
which,  during  the  milling  process,  separates  the 
parts  of  the  kernel.  The  middlings  are  the  coarse 
particles  coming  from  the  part  of  the  kernel  be- 
tween the  bran  covering  and  the  starchy  central 
part.  In  the  old  process  middlings  were  avoided, 
and  as  much  flour  as  possible  was  obtained  from 
the  first  grinding.  Now  by  setting  the  stones  far 
apart  the  purpose  is  to  make  at  the  first  grind  a 
large  percentage  of  middlings  and  to  eliminate  the 
bran  and  first  flour,  which  is  of  a  low  grade.  The 
middlings,  which  are  then  purified  and  reground, 
make  the  high  grade  flour.  By  this  method  the 
hard  spring  wheat  gave  a  high  percentage  of 
middlings  and  immediately  came  into  favor. 

The  increasing  number  of  breaks  that  be- 
came necessary,  though,  demanded  improved  ma- 
chinery. Representatives  from  the  leading  mills 
in  the  United  States  visited  Europe  and  there 
studied  the  Hungarian  methods  of  milling.  This 
study  resulted  in  the  adoption  of  a  roller  system 


152  THE  WHEAT  INDUSTRY 

of  machinery  which,  with  many  improvements, 
has  come  to  be  the  modern  process.  By  this 
method  the  grain,  instead  of  being  ground  in  a 
single  pair  of  millstones,  is  run  through  six  or 
seven  sets  of  rollers  and  is  sifted  and  graded  after 
each  break.  The  first  pair  of  rollers  are  so  far 
apart  that  they  merely  crack  or  break  the  grain. 
The  second  pair  are  a  little  closer  together,  the 
third  pair  still  closer,  and  thus  they  continue,  the 
distance  between  them  being  decreased  with  each 
successive  pair.  The  old  process  aimed  to  get  as 
much  flour  as  possible  at  one  grinding ;  the  new 
seeks  to  get  as  little  flour  as  possible  at  the  first 
two  or  three  breaks.  The  old  process  sought  to 
avoid  middlings  because  they  meant  loss  of  flour. 
The  new  process  seeks  to  produce  as  much  mid- 
dlings as  possible,  because  the  high  grade  flour  is 
produced  by  grinding  them.  By  the  old  process 
but  little  of  the  gluten  could  be  separated  from  the 
bran,  which  resulted  in  a  weak  flour  since  gluten 
gives  it  its  rising  quality.  By  the  new  method  of 
milling  a  large  part  of  the  gluten  is  saved  and  thus 
a  better  flour  for  bread  making  is  produced. 

In  order  to  understand  clearly  the  processes  of 
modern  flour  making  we  should  visit  a  mill.  There 
by  close  observation  and  study  we  may  gain  a 
clear  idea  of  how  flour  is  made.  To  prepare  our- 
selves, let  us  together  make  an  imaginary  trip, 
then  if  possible,  follow  it  with  an  actual  one. 


MILLING 


153 


A  Visit  to  a  Large  Mill.  —  As  we  approach  the 
milling  plant,  we  find  ourselves  contrasting  the 
group  of  four  or  five  factory-like  buildings  with 
the  picturesque  mills  of  the  artist.  These,  with 
their  huge  vanes  and  great  water  wheels,  do  not 
harmonize  with  the  matter-of-fact  group  before 
us.  There  is  but  little  of  the  poetic  in  the  build- 


FIG.  73.  —  A  modern  milling  plant. 

ings,  —  the  power  house,  warehouse,  elevator,  and 
mill. 

We  enter  the  office  and  ask  if  we  may  see  the 
mill.  We  are  pleased  when  the  miller  himself 
comes  in  to  act  as  our  guide.  He  is  still  the 
"  dusty  miller,"  for  his  white  suit  and  white  skull 
cap  are  covered  with  flour.  He  is  pleased  to  take 
us  through,  for  he  is  proud  of  his  mill.  We  follow 
a  winding  stair  to  an  upper  floor.  Here  he 
shows  us  how  the  wheat  is  received,  cleaned,  and 
tempered.  No  one  needs  to  be  there  for  the  work 


154  THE  WHEAT  INDUSTRY 

is  all  done  by  machinery.  We  are  here  shown 
several  purifiers  and  dust  collectors  also.  There 
is  so  much  noise  that  it  is  hard  to  hear  expla- 
nations. But  we  are  interested  in  the  dust  collec- 
tor, for  we  have  read  that  in  the  old-time  mills 
there  were  disastrous  explosions  caused  by  the 
fine  flour  dust  which  filled  the  air.  We  resolve 
that  later  we  shall  find  out  more  about  this. 

Now  we  hurry  down  to  the  other  floors  to  see 
the  processes  of  reduction.  Two  floors  are  occu- 
pied by  mills  and  screeners  or  scalpers.  As  we 
pass  along  we  see  them  labeled:  ist  break,  2d 
break,  ist  middlings,  and  so  forth,  each  machine 
in  turn  labeled  to  indicate  its  special  function. 
We  watch  the  material  through  a  glass  window 
as  it  comes  in  to  each  machine ;  and,  by  opening 
a  small  door  below,  we  catch  some  of  the  product 
as  it  leaves  and  note  what  change  has  taken  place. 
We  find  that  the  products  are  transferred  from 
floor  to  floor  by  conveyers.  Very  few  assistants 
are  about.  We  see  one  going  from  place  to  place 
and  are  told  that  he  is  making  tests.  The  flour 
is  tested  at  every  stage  of  the  process,  for  it  must 
be  uniform  from  day  to  day. 

Then  we  are  taken  to  see  the  bolting.  At  first 
we  are  afraid  to  enter  the  room  for  the  shaking 
bolters  make  us  dizzy.  We  soon  get  used  to 
them,  however,  and  immediately  become  inter- 
ested in  the  silk  bolting  cloth  which  the  miller  is 


MILLING  155 

explaining.  It  is  so  finely  woven  that  it  seems 
impossible  for  flour  to  go  through  it.  He  shows 
us  how  screens  made  of  this  cloth  are  fitted  into 
the  great  tank-like  cases,  which  are  really  silk 
bottom  sieves.  These  are  shaken  by  machinery, 
and  thus  the  flour  is  sifted  through  the  cloth. 
This  process  is  called  bolting. 

Coming  down  again  to  the  first  floor,  we  stop  for 
a  while  to  watch  the  sacking  of  the  flour.  The 
sacks  are  stamped  with  the  name  of  the  mill  and 
the  grade  of  the  flour.  They  are  filled  automati- 
cally. Men,  however,  handle  the  filled  sacks  and 
sew  them  up.  We  stay  here  for  some  time,  for 
this  is  fascinating  work.  The  man  lifts  the  sack 
from  the  filler  and  weighs  it.  He  then  takes  a 
thread  from  his  belt  and,  threading  it  through 
the  needle,  wraps  it  about  one  corner  of  the  top  of 
the  sack,  thus  making  an  ear.  Lightning-like  he 
sews  up  the  opening,  makes  the  other  ear,  takes 
off  the  remaining  thread,  and  lifts  the  sack  to  the 
truck.  This  is  all  done  so  quickly  that  we  hardly 
distinguish  the  processes.  It  looks  like  a  sleight- 
of-hand  performance  and  we  remain  until  we  can 
follow  his  rapid  movements. 

The  miller  tells  us  that  many  large  mills  turn 
out  1500  barrels  of  flour  per  day.  This,  compared 
with  the  few  bushels  of  poorly  ground  meal  that 
the  old  mills  produced,  is  enormous. 

Our  tour  of  the  mill  is  finished.     We  feel  that 


FIG.  74.  —  Sectional  view  of  a  modern  mill :  /,  scales,  for  weighing  wheat  as 
it  is  received ;  2,  receiving  separator,  for  separating  other  kinds  of  seeds  from 
wheat ;  3,  storage  bins,  for  reserve  supply  of  wheat  in  advance  of  mill  require- 
ments ;  4,  mill  separator,  for  further  separating  foreign  seeds  from  wheat ;  5, 
scourer,  for  removing  dust  from  wheat  kernels;  6,  cockle  cylinder,  for  removing 
all  round  seeds ;  7,  wheat  washer,  for  thoroughly  cleansing  the  wheat ;  8,  wheat 
dryer,  for  drying  wheat  after  washing ;  Q,  first  break  rolls,  for  rupturing  bran,  en- 
abling bran  and  germ  to  be  separated  from  interior ;  10,  first  break  scalper,  for 
sifting  middlings  through  bolting  cloth  to  separate  from  bran;  //,  second  break 
rolls,  for  further  loosening  the  middlings  from  bran  ;  12,  second  break  scalper,  for  sep- 
arating more  middlings  from  bran ;  13,  third  break  rolls,  for  further  loosening 
middlings  from  bran ;  14,  third  break  scalper,  for  final  separation  of  middlings 
from  bran ;  15,  bran  duster,  for  sifting  low  grade  flour  from  bran  ;  16,  bran  bin, 
for  packing  bran  for  shipment ;  17,  grading  reel,  for  separating  middlings  by  sift- 
ing through  various  sizes  of  bolting  cloth  ;  18,  dust  collector  and  purifier,  for  cleaning 
and  purifying  middlings  by  air  and  sifting ;  IQ,  smooth  rolls,  for  grinding  purified 
middlings  very  fine  to  flour ;  20,  flour  bolter,  for  sifting  flour  from  purified  mid- 
dlings ;  21,  second  reduction  rolls,  for  further  grinding  of  purified  middlings ;  22,  flour 
bolter,  for  separating  flour  from  purified  middlings  of  second  grinding  ;  2 3,  flour 
bin  and  packer,  for  packing  flour  for  shipment ;  24,  elevator,  for  raising  products  to 
the  various  machines. 


MILLING  157 

we  have  seen  so  much  that  we  must  think  it  over 
carefully  before  we  can  understand  it  all.  We 
brush  the  flour  from  our  clothes  and  thank  the 
miller  for  his  kindness.  We  leave,  realizing  more 
fully  than  we  did  before  that  milling  is  no  longer 
a  simple  home  industry,  but  that  it  is,  rather,  a 
complex  factory  system  which  supplies  millions  of 
people  with  one  of  their  most  common  food 
materials. 

This  has  given  us  a  bird's-eye  view  of  the 
processes  of  flour  making.  As  yet,  we  hardly 
understand  why  so  many  steps  are  necessary. 
In  our  hurried  trip,  we  could  not  stop  to  learn 
the  whole  story  of  each  process.  Let  us  now 
study  them  more  in  detail. 

The  Mill  Elevator.  —  In  order  to  keep  busy  at 
all  times  a  supply  of  wheat  must  constantly  be 
kept  on  hand.  This  is  stored  in  a  tall  building 
called  an  elevator  (Fig.  73,  building  to  the  right 
and  rear).  The  capacity  of  this  elevator  may 
be  large  or  small.  It  usually  corresponds  in 
this  respect  to  the  size  of  the  mill.  A  surplus  is 
also  carried  because  it  is  of  business  advantage  to 
buy  when  wheat  is  at  a  low  price.  The  grain  may 
be  purchased  either  in  carload  lots  from  central 
markets  or  in  some  cases  directly  from  the  farmers. 

Cleaning  the  Wheat. --The  wheat  is  brought  to 
the  mill  from  the  elevator  by  a  conveyer.  The 
miller  knows  that  in  order  to  have  a  high  grade 


158  THE  WHEAT  INDUSTRY 

product  he  must  start  with  clean  grain.  The 
first  step,  therefore,  is  to  separate  the  wheat  from 
husks,  dirt,  weed  seed,  and  other  undesirable 
matter.  This  separating  is  accomplished  by 
screening  processes.  After  screening,  the  grain 
goes  through  scouring  machines,  where  wheat 
hairs,  loose  particles  of  bran,  and  any  foreign 
matter  which  may  be  clinging  to  the  kernels  is 
removed.  Some  millers  even  wash  the  wheat 
during  the  scouring  process. 

Tempering  the  Grain. — The  grain  thus  purified 
and  cleaned  must  go  through  a  tempering  process. 
The  purpose  of  tempering  is  to  put  the  grain  in 
the  best  possible  condition  for  milling.  Just  what 
this  condition  is  depends  upon  the  product  desired 
and  the  details  of  the  milling  method  used.  Heat 
and  moisture  are  always  applied  in  some  form. 
Tempering  toughens  the  grain  and  so  conditions 
it  that,  in  grinding,  the  bran  will  remain  in  large 
pieces  and  the  various  parts  of  the  interior  will 
break  up  in  such  a  way  as  the  miller  may  desire. 

The  Reduction  Process. — After  the  tempering 
process  the  wheat  is  then  passed  through  six  or 
seven  sets  of  steel  rollers,  the  first  sets  of  which 
are  corrugated.  Each  passage  through  a  set  of 
rollers  is  called  a  break.  The  rollers  must  be  kept 
cool  since,  if  the  flour  is  heated  during  the  process 
of  reduction,  it  becomes  dark.  After  each  break 
the  product  is  sifted  through  silk  screens.  The 


MILLING  159 

parts  removed,  called  middlings,  are  sent  through 
the  purifier.  The  part  which  does  not  go  through 
the  screen  goes  on  to  the  next  break.  Since  the 
first  break  rollers  are  set  far  apart,  the  grain  is 
here  merely  flattened  and  slightly  broken  up. 
The  sifting  gives  a  small  amount  of  fine  flour. 
This  comes  from  the  center  of  the  grain  and,  as 
has  been  previously  stated,  makes  a  poor  grade 
flour.  This  is  sent  through  the  purifier,  which 
removes  particles  of  bran,  fuzz,  and  dirt,  and  the 
product  is  called  first  break  flour.  First  break 
flour  is  not  added  to  the  middlings  but  is  sold  as  a 
low  grade  flour.  Sometimes  it  is  added  to  the 
shorts  and  used  for  animal  feed. 

After  the  first  separation  the  bulk  of  the  grain 
is  still  left  and  goes  through  the  second  break. 
The  rollers  here  are  closer  together  and  other  parts 
of  the  interior  of  the  grain  break  down  under  this 
process.  These  parts  are  separated  by  sifting  and 
the  product  here  is  known  as  second  break  mid- 
dlings. This,  in  turn,  is  sent  to  a  purifier.  The 
remainder,  which  now  looks  quite  like  bran,  goes 
to  the  third  break,  which  reduces  other  portions 
of  the  interior  of  the  grain  so  that  they  may  be 
separated  as  third  break  middlings.  Inasmuch 
as  this  process  continues  through  6  or  7  breaks, 
practically  all  of  the  interior  part  of  the  wheat 
grain  is  broken  and  removed,  leaving  the  tough 
outer  part  as  bran. 


i6o 


THE  WHEAT  INDUSTRY 


MILLING  161 

The  middlings  from  the  various  breaks,  after 
going  through  the  purifier,  are  further  reduced  by 
being  passed  between  several  sets  of  smooth  rolls. 
The  flour  product  of  each  reduction  is  then  bolted. 
This  consists  of  sifting  the  flour  through  silk 
screens  of  closer  and  closer  texture,  until  a  very 
fine-grained  flour  is  the  product. 

Bleaching  the  Flour.  -  -  The  flour  from  some 
wheat  as  it  comes  from  the  bolters  is  dark.  White- 
ness in  flour  is  as  much  desired  as  is  whiteness  in 
sugar  or  yellowness  in  butter.  The  demand  by 
buyers  for  a  white  flour  has  brought  about  the 
bleaching  process.  Under  the  old  method  the  flour 
had  to  be  stored  for  about  three  months  in  order  to 
whiten  it.  This  was  a  natural  bleaching  process, 
but  it  was  very  slow.  Flour  that  was  to  be  sent 
abroad  could  be  bleached  in  this  way,  as  it  would 
whiten  during  the  period  of  transportation,  but  a 
method  which  required  a  shorter  time  was  deemed 
a  necessity. 

The  Alsop  process,  invented  by  Alsop  in  1904, 
is  the  one  now  generally  used  in  the  big  mills.  In 
England  it  is  known  as  the  Andrews  method.  Its 
advantage  is  that  it  prepares  the  flour  for  imme- 
diate use  and  thus  saves  the  expense  of  storing. 
The  treatment  consists  of  subjecting  the  flour  to 
the  action  of  nitrogen  peroxide,  a  gas  which  is 
made  up  of  nitrogen  and  oxygen  chemically  united. 
As  the  flour  in  a  thin  stream  is  emptied  into  the 


162 


THE  WHEAT  INDUSTRY 


bleaching  chamber,  it  is  sprayed  with  air  which 
contains  this  chemical.  Nitrogen  peroxide  has 
the  property  of  decolorizing  the  oil  in  the  flour. 
How  the  flour  is  actually  affected  by  this  method 
of  treatment  has  been  a  matter  of  dispute  ever 


FIG.  76.  —  General  view  of  the 

since  it  first  came  into  use.  In  1910,  the  Lexing- 
ton Milling  Company  of  Lexington,  Nebraska, 
shipped  625  sacks  of  bleached  flour  to  Missouri. 
The  question  was  then  brought  into  court  by 
government  inspectors.  It  was  claimed  that  the 
flour  contained  foreign  injurious  substances  and 
was  thus  in  violation  of  the  pure  food  law.  Four 
years  were  spent  in  preparation  for  the  case  and 


MILLING 


163 


finally  the  court  decision  was  announced  by  Jus- 
tice Day  on  February  24,  1914.  The  court  held 
that  there  was  no  injurious  effect  observed  from 
the  use  of  this  bleached  flour.  This  decision  of 
the  highest  court  was  a  great  victory  for  the 


Minneapolis  milling  district. 

millers  of  the  country.  It  permits  them  to  ship 
bleached  flour  to  other  states  without  violation 
of  the  pure  food  laws. 

The  By-products  of  Milling.  —  The  leavings  from 
the  various  screenings  and  boltings  consist  of  bran, 
the  germ,  and  a  low  grade  flour.  The  two  latter 
products  mixed  together  are  known  as  shorts. 
Sometimes  the  germ  and  a  part  of  the  flour  screen- 


164  THE  WHEAT  INDUSTRY 

ings  are  put  into  the  bran.  Each  miller  has  his 
own  plan,  being  influenced  by  the  market  for  the 
product.  The  germ,  though  high  in  food  value, 
must  be  removed  from  the  flour  since  it  contains 
much  oil.  This  oil  would  in  time  become  rancid 
and  thus  affect  the  keeping  quality  of  the  flour. 

The  Development  of  Milling  Centers.  -  -  In 
about  1835,  the  mills  of  Rochester,  N.  Y.  were 
taking  first  place  among  the  mills  of  the  United 
States.  Rochester  was  surrounded  by  about  2300 
square  miles  of  fertile  valley  land  which  was  pro- 
ducing wheat  that  took  prize  medals  in  European 
exhibitions.  The  Erie  Canal,  Genesee  River,  and 
Tonawanda  Railroad  brought  to  the  Rochester 
mills  not  only  the  wheat  of  this  valley  but  also 
that  of  Ohio  and  Canada.  Within  the  city  limits 
of  Rochester  the  Genesee  River  has  successive  falls 
aggregating  268  feet.  These  wonderful  falls  serve 
as  a  great  source  of  power  for  milling.  Rochester 
because  of  these  natural  advantages  came  to  be 
known  as  the  Flour  City. 

The  next  milling  centers  to  develop  were  to  the 
west  and  south.  By  1865  the  leading  wheat-pro- 
ducing states  were  Illinois,  Indiana,  Wisconsin, 
and  Ohio.  Transportation  was  down  the  Missis- 
sippi to  New  Orleans.  St.  Louis  thus  developed 
as  a  receiving  and  milling  center,  and  held  first 
place  until  1880.  Surrounded  by  wheat-produc- 
ing areas,  with  easy  transportation  in  all  direc- 


MILLING  165 

tions,  it  has  maintained  a  large  and  steady  milling 
trade  since  that  time. 

The  introduction  of  the  middlings  milling  sys- 
tem stimulated  the  production  of  spring  wheat  in 
what  was  then  called  the  Northwest.  The  millers 
of  Minneapolis  being  in  that  locality  were  among 
the  first  to  adopt  roller  machinery.  The  develop- 
ment and  rapid  growth  of  their  mills  was  remark- 
able. The  Red  River  valley  has  been  called 
"  the  bread  basket  of  the  world/'  and  Minneapo- 
lis controls  the  gateway  to  it.  With  the  power  in 
the  falls  of  St.  Anthony,  the  nearness  to  the  wheat 
country,  and  the  transportation  conveniences,  the 
result  was  inevitable.  Minneapolis  is  now  the 
greatest  flour-producing  center  in  the  world. 

QUESTIONS  AND  EXERCISES 

1.  What  is  meant  by  a  gristmill  ? 

2.  Why  are  the  handstone  and  the  quern  referred  to  as 
primitive  milling  devices  ?     Where  are  they  in  use  now  ? 

3.  What  methods  of  milling  were  in  common  use  about 
the  time  of  the  Revolutionary  War  ?. 

4.  About    when    were    modern    milling    methods    intro- 
duced ? 

5.  What    are   the    essential  differences    between   the   old 
buhrstone  methods  and  the  present  gradual  reduction  pro- 
cesses ? 

6.  Why   do   many   mills   have  large    wheat   elevators    as 
part  of  their  equipment  ? 

7.  How   is   wheat   made  ready   for   grinding   into    flour  ? 

8.  Describe    the    essential     processes    in    manufacturing 


166  THE  WHEAT  INDUSTRY 

flour.     What  is  meant  by  break?     Why  are  so  many  breaks 
necessary  ? 

9.   What  are  the  by-products  of  milling  ? 

10.  What  is  the  purpose  of  bleaching  flour  ? 

11.  Trace   the   development   of   milling    centers    of  the 
United  States. 

12.  If  possible  visit   a  flouring  mill   and  write  a   story, 
tracing  the  wheat  through  the  various  processes  of  manu- 
facture into  flour. 


CHAPTER  X 
THE    USES   OF   WHEAT  PRODUCTS 

WHEAT  is  so  closely  associated  with  flour  and 
bread  in  our  minds  that  we  do  not  think  of  its 
other  products  and  uses.  Among  the  products 
of  wheat,  bread,  because  of  its  importance  in  the 
diet  of  all  civilized  people,  will,  no  doubt,  always 
have  first  place.  Some  parts  of  the  wheat,  how- 


FIG.  77.  —  Some  farmers  burn  their  straw  stacks. 

ever,  cannot  be  used  as  flour,  and  likewise  certain 
wheats  have  been  found  to  be  better  adapted  to 
the  manufacture  of  other  products.  The  demand 
for  variety  has  also  led  to  the  manufacture  of 
many  less  common  wheat  foods.  Furthermore 
straw  has  various  uses  both  in  feed  and  in  manu- 
factures. Thus  we  see  that  wheat  and  its  prod- 
ucts enter  into  many  industrial  activities. 

167 


i68 


THE  WHEAT  INDUSTRY 


How  the  Wheat  Straw  is  Used.  —  In  the  big 
wheat  regions  thousands  of  tons  of  straw  are 
burned  every  year.  Smaller  wheat  districts  burn 
25  to  75  Per  cent  °f  tne  straw.  This  makes  of 
the  straw  almost  a  total  loss  and  therefore  such 
a  method  can  be  only  temporary.  Although 
there  are  many  minor  uses  for  straw,  no  means  of 

utilizing  the 
bulk  of  the 
product  has 
yet  been  gener- 
ally accepted. 
Some  farm- 


FIG.    78. —  A   straw  stack  placed  at  the  head  of  a 
gully  to  prevent  erosion. 


ers  scatter  the 
wheat  straw 
over  the  fields 
as  a  top  dress- 
ing in  order  to 
prevent  the 
blowing  of  the 
soil.  Sometimes  the  grain  stacks  are  placed  in 
groups  near  gullies ;  and,  as  the  threshing  is 
done,  the  straw  is  piled  into  them  to  prevent 
erosion.  The  straw  stacks  tend  to  check  the  water 
in  the  gullies  and  so  prevent  their  further  growth. 
Others  place  the  straw  on  lower  parts  of  the  land, 
then  plow  deeply,  and  thus  improve  the  drainage. 
These  methods  of  using  straw  are  all  better  than 
burning  it. 


THE  USES  OF  WHEAT  PRODUCTS      169 


Wheat  straw  is  fed  to  farm  animals  as  a  fod- 
der. It  is  low  in  protein  and  fat  and  high  in 
carbohydrates.  Its  composition  suggests  that  it 
has  much  food  value.  This,  however,  is  not  the 
case,  since  to  digest  and  assimilate  the  nutrients 
in  the  wheat  straw,  it  takes  practically  as  much 
energy  as  it  furnishes.  When  other  feed  is  scarce 
a  good  deal  of  straw,  however,  is  fed.  Although 
it  has  but  little  fattening  value,  it  may  be  valuable 
in  carrying  stock  through  a  period  of  famine. 

Dry  Matter  and  Digestible  Food  Materials  in  100  Pounds  of 

Straw 


FEEDING  STUFF 

TOTAL 
DRY  MATTER 

PROTEIN 

CARBOHYDRATES 

FAT 

Alfalfa  Hay    . 
Wheat  Straw 

9I.6% 
90.4% 

10.58% 

•37% 

37-33% 
36.30% 

1.38% 
•40% 

In  general  the  chief  value  of  the  straw  lies  in 
its  use  as  a  fertilizer  and  an  increasing  amount  is 
so  used  each  year.  The  nitrogen,  phosphoric 
acid,  and  potash  which  it  contains  are  the  im- 
portant constituents  which  growing  plants  need. 
If  purchased  as  commercial  fertilizer,  the  amount 
of  these  elements  which  is  found  in  a  ton  of  wheat 
straw  would  cost  about  $2.50.  On  this  basis  the 
straw  from  an  average  4O-acre  field  is  worth  $100. 
This  is  a  much  higher  value  than  can  be  obtained 
from  any  of  the  other  uses  that  we  have  discussed. 


170 


THE  WHEAT  INDUSTRY 


Straw  that  is  to  be  applied  as  fertilizer  serves 
a  double  purpose.  It  is  first  used  as  bedding  for 
stock  and  is  then  returned  to  the  soil  as  a  manure. 
Experiments  upon  lands  that  have  been  fertilized 
in  this  manner  have  usually  shown  a  decided  in- 
crease in  crop  yields. 

Wheat  straw  is  also  used  in  a  number  of  manu- 
factured articles  ; 
for  example, 
mattresses,  door- 
mats, paper,  and 
hats.  Straw 
pulp  for  the 
manufacture  of 
paper  is  also  an 
important  article 
of  commerce. 
The  production 
of  wood  pulp, 
however,  has 
lessened  this  use  of  the  straw,  since  the  wood 
pulp  is  cheaper  and  is  more  easily  utilized.  The 
manufacture  of  straw  pulp  is  now  practically  con- 
fined to  Germany.  It  is  used  for  the  purpose 
of  making  cheap  printing  paper  harder  and  more 
opaque.  Manufacturers  of  straw  hats  likewise 
depend  largely  upon  wheat  straw  for  their  raw 
material.  The  finest  straw  for  this  purpose  comes 
from  the  vicinity  of  Tuscany  in  Italy.  There  the 


FIG.  79.  —  After  the  wheat  has  been  cut, 
weeds  and  grasses  spring  up  in  the  stubble,  afford- 
ing autumn  pasture. 


THE  USES  OF  WHEAT  PRODUCTS     171 

straw  is  an  important  product  of  the  wheat  plant. 
The  plaiting  of  the  straw,  furthermore,  gives  em- 
ployment to  thousands  of  women  and  children. 
Most  of  the  plaits  are  sent  to  the  factories  of 
England  and  some  are  imported  by  the  United 
States. 

Wheat  Grain  as  Stock  Feed.  — Wheat  grain  not 
only  is  relished  by  all  kinds  of  farm  stock  but  is 
a  valuable  food.  It  is  only  within  recent  years, 
however,  that  it  has  been  so  used  to  any  great 
extent.  Since  it  costs  more  to  produce  wheat 
than  corn,  wheat  is  not  likely  to  become  common 
stock  feed,  but  there  are  times  when  it  can  be 
profitably  used.  A  shortage  of  corn  and  an  over- 
production of  wheat  may  bring  about  market  con- 
ditions that  would  warrant  its  feeding.  Damaged 
wheat,  likewise,  should  be  fed  rather  than  sold  at 
a  low  price;  for,  although  the  flour  value,  which 
determines  the  price,  may  be  very  low,  the  feed- 
ing value  may  be  high.  Wheat  is  fed  as  an 
appetizer  by  mixing  it  with  other  grains.  Since 
it  is  so  hard  it  should  usually  be  ground  or  soaked 
before  feeding. 

In  the  milling  of  wheat  for  flour,  several  by- 
products are  produced.  These  are  usually  known 
as  shorts  and  bran,  and  are  important  stock 
feeds.  Their  composition  varies  in  products  from 
different  mills.  In  general,  shorts  contain  most 
of  the  germ  and  the  screenings  from  the  various 


172  THE  WHEAT  INDUSTRY 

grades  of  flour.  Bran  is  composed  of  the  outer 
coats  of  the  kernels  and  of  such  portions  of  the 
inner  parts  as  are  not  separated  in  the  milling 
processes.  The  scourings  from  the  grain  are 
usually  added  to  the  bran.  Shorts  and  bran  are 
both  concentrated  stock  feeds. 

Wheat  as  a  Food. --The  wheat  grain  has  its 
largest  use  as  a  human  food  and  in  this  capacity 
has  rapidly  replaced  the  other  grains.  This  is 
due  to  its  palatability  rather  than  to  its  superiority 
in  sustaining  life. 

Sometimes  the  whole  wheat  is  used.  In  this 
case  the  grain  is  cleaned  and  cooked  until  it  is 
soft  and  then  served  with  milk  and  fruits  added. 
This  was  the  primitive  method  of  preparing  wheat. 
Now  it  is  usually  more  or  less  broken  up  and 
separated  according  to  its  composition. 

The  Use  of  Wheat  for  Macaroni.  —  Macaroni 
is  an  Italian  preparation.  It  is  made  from  hard 
wheats,  which  have  a  high  gluten  content.  They 
are  often  called  macaroni  wheats,  of  which  Durum 
is  a  typical  example.  They  are  grown  in  nearly 
all  the  wheat-producing  countries.  Some  of  the 
very  best  macaroni  wheats  are  grown  in  Russia 
and  Italy.  Although  originally  an  Italian  indus- 
try, macaroni  is  so  widely  used  that  many  coun- 
tries are  now  manufacturing  it.  In  the  United 
States,  from  home-grown  Durum'  wheat,  about 
100,000,000  pounds  of  macaroni  are  made  annu- 


THE  USES   OF  WHEAT  PRODUCTS      173 

ally.  This  quantity  supplies  only  about  one  half  the 
demand.  The  industry  is  growing  rapidly,  how- 
ever, and  the  products  are  being  widely  advertised 
as  "  the  best  in  the  world,"  and  "  made  in  America 
from  American-grown  wheats." 


Copyright  by  Underwood  and  Underwood. 
FIG.  80.  —  Drying  macaroni  in  the  open  air,  Naples. 

In  the  manufacture  of  macaroni  the  grain  is 
ground  into  a  coarse  granular  product,  called 
semolina.  This  is  put  into  a  large  mixer  and  boiling 
water  is  added.  The  mass  is  stirred  and  then 
kneaded  into  a  dough.  This  is  put  into  a  cylinder 


174  THE  WHEAT  INDUSTRY 

which  has  a  perforated  plate  at  the  bottom  and  is 
then  forced  through  this  plate.  As  the  strings  of 
dough  appear  they  are  cut  into  desired  lengths 
and  are  then  hung  over  poles  or  are  spread  out  on 
tables  to  dry  and  temper.  There  are  various 
names  for  the  different  forms  of  this  substance. 
If  fine  threads  have  been  produced  it  is  known  as 
vermicelli ;  if  it  is  in  the  form  of  thin  sticks  or 
pipes  it  is  called  spaghetti.  Sometimes  the  dough 
is  rolled  thin  and  shaped  into  various  forms  as 
stars  or  discs.  These  forms  are  baked  and  are 
sold  either  in  package  or  bulk  under  the  name  paste. 

Some  of  the  macaroni  made  in  European  cities 
is  sun  dried.  It  is  placed  on  racks  which  are 
sometimes  left  out  in  the  streets  until  the  product 
is  dry.  This  unsanitary  method  has  been  severely 
criticized  and  so  in  recent  years  there  has  been  much 
improvement. 

Most  of  the  macaroni  factories  in  the  United 
States  are  models  of  cleanliness.  Their  product 
is  kiln-dried  and  is  handled  by  machinery.  The 
label,  "  Made  in  the  United  States,"  indicates 
high  quality  in  macaroni. 

The  Use  of  Wheat  in  Cereal  Foods.  -  -  The  manu- 
facture in  commercial  quantities  of  cereal  foods 
made  from  wheat  is  of  American  origin.  The 
production  of  such  foods  is  a  prominent  industry 
in  Battle  Creek,  Michigan,  and  in  Niagara  Falls, 
New  York.  The  high  favor  gained  by  cereal  foods 


THE  USES  OF  WHEAT   PRODUCTS     175 

has  caused  manufacturing  plants  to  be  established 
in  a  great  number  of  other  cities  throughout  the 
country.  This  is  especially  true  of  the  Mississippi 
Valley  region.  Since  the  germ  portion  of  the 
grain  is  a  by-product  in  milling,  flouring  mills 
have  frequently  found  it  profitable  to  produce 
certain  kinds  of  wheat  foods,  particularly  such 
as  make  use  of  this  germ  portion  of  the  grain. 

Wheat  foods  are  of  many  kinds  :  those  which 
are  whole  wheat  and  those  which  use  but  parts 
of  the  kernel ;  those  which  are  cooked  and  those 
which  are  uncooked.  All  are  in  general  favor.- 
The  reasons  for  their  popularity  are  not  hard  to 
find.  Not  only  are  they  nutritious,  palatable,  and 
inexpensive,  but  they  are  readily  and  quickly  pre- 
pared for  table  use.  Because  of  their  dryness 
they  are  also  easily  kept  fresh. 

The  factories  where  these  cereal  foods  are  made 
are  generally  very  sanitary.  In  the  first  process 
all  dirt  and  other  foreign  matter  is  removed  and 
the  wheat  is  thoroughly  cleaned.  This  cleansing 
is  accomplished  by  sifting,  fanning,  and  scrubbing. 
Then  the  clean  wheat  goes  through  the  various 
processes  of  preparation  and  finally  the  product 
comes  out  ready  for  market.  In  the  whole  pro- 
cess of  preparation  it  has  no£jiea3__toiiched— by- 
human  hands.  Even  packing  the  food  into  the 
cartons  or  packages  is  in  nearly  every  instance  done 
by  machinery. 


176 


THE  WHEAT  INDUSTRY 


THE  USES  OF  WHEAT  PRODUCTS      177 


Total  and  Digestible  Nutrients  and  Fuel  Value  of 
Wheat  Breakfast  Foods1 


PROPORTION  OF  TOTAL  WATER 

PROPORTION  OF  DIGESTIBLE 

AND  NUTRIENTS  IN  FOOD 

NUTRIENTS  IN  FOOD 

NAME  OF  FOOD 

go 

£ 

§  * 

^ 

>«    Cfl 

-H       '/* 

<  D 

g 

1 

III 

X 
W 

H 

ffl§ 

^& 

1 

1 

fa 

& 

1 

1 

1 

UQ 

1 

IS 

Per 

Per 

Per 

Per 

Per 

Per 

Per 

Per 

Per 

Per 

Calo- 

Cent 

Cent 

Cent 

Cent 

Cent 

Cent 

Cent 

Cent 

Cent 

Cent 

ries 

Whole  Grain   .     . 

10.5 

II.9 

2.1 

71.9 

1.8 

1.8 

Cracked  Wheat   . 

IO.I 

II.  I 

1-7 

73.8 

1-7 

1.6 

8.1 

1.5 

68.7 

1.2 

1501 

Rolled        Wheat, 

steam-cooked   . 

10.6 

IO.2 

1.8 

74.1 

1.8 

1.5 

8.5 

1.6 

70.7 

I.I 

1541 

Flaked              and 

crisped,     ready 

to  eat      ... 

94 

12.2 

1.4 

72.7 

1.9 

2.4 

8.9 

1.3 

67.9 

1.8 

1500 

Flaked,     crisped, 

and        malted, 

ready  to  eat    . 

9.0 

12.  1 

1.4 

73-0 

1.8 

2.7 

9-1 

1.3 

68.4 

2.O 

1526 

Coarsely  ground, 

parched          at 

factory    .     .     . 

8.0 

14.2 

3.1 

72.3 

I.O 

1-4, 

11.5 

2.8 

70.1 

I.I 

1699 

Shredded    Wheat 

8.1 

10.6 

1.4 

76.0 

2.1 

1.8 

7-7 

1.3 

7I.I 

1.4 

IS2I 

Farina    .... 

10.9 

I  I.O 

1.4 

75-9 

4 

4 

8.9 

1.3 

72.9 

•3 

1609 

Crumbed         and 

1    malted     .    „     . 

5.6 

12.2 

I.O 

77-6 

i.7 

1.9 

9.1 

•9 

73-7 

1.4 

1923 

Cereal  foods  of  all  kinds  have  been  extensively 
and  ingeniously  advertised  and  those  made  from 
wheat  have  been  given  particularly  wide  publicity. 
The  claims  sometimes  made  for  them  are  aston- 
ishing. When  these  foods  first  appeared  on  the 
market,  it  was  impossible  to  tell  whether  such 
claims  were  true  or  fanciful.  Investigators  at 

1  U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agriculture,  Farmers'  Bulletin  249. 


178  THE  WHEAT  INDUSTRY 

experiment  stations  have  studied  their  composi- 
tion and  food  value  so  that  now  definite  information 
about  them  is  available.  The  composition  of  the 
various  cereal  foods  made  from  wheat  is  about 
the  same.  There  are  slight  variations  because  of 
differences  in  the  grain  used  and  in  methods  of 
preparation.  The  main  differences  are  in  ap- 
pearance and  flavor.  The  table  on  page  177  shows 
the  average  composition  of  the  various  breakfast 
foods,  the  proportion  of  digestible  nutrients  which 
they  supply,  and  their  energy  values. 

Because  there  is  a  bewildering  number  of  trade 
names,  there  has  been  no  attempt  made  to  use 
them  in  this  table.  Instead  there  are  used  descrip- 
tive terms  which  correctly  group  the  foods  and 
answer  the  same  purpose.  An  examination  of 
any  special  brand  as  to  its  appearance  and  physi- 
cal characteristics  will  determine  the  class  in  which 
it  is  included.  A  study  of  the  table  shows  that 
these  foods  are  dry  materials,  for  the  average  water 
content  is  only  about  10  per  cent.  They  are 
rather  high  in  protein  and  are  especially  rich  in 
carbohydrates. 

The  Use  of  Wheat  for  Flour.  —  The  uses  of  wheat 
thus  far  described  are  of  minor  importance  if  we  take 
into  account  the  quantities  consumed.  The  great 
bulk  of  wheat  is  made  into  flour  which  is  used 
not  only  in  making  bread  but  also  for  a  variety 
of  less  important  foods.  Because  of  differences 


THE  USES  OF  WHEAT  PRODUCTS     179 

in  the  wheat  and  in  methods  of  milling,  there  are 
many  kinds  and  grades  of  flour. 

Flour  made  from  Hard  Wheat.  --  Hard  wheat 
flour  is  the  great  bread  flour.  This  fact  is  not  due 
to  any  especially  high  nutritive  value  but  to  the 
fact  that  bread  made  from  it  is,  on  account  of  its 
lightness,  easily  digested.  The  gluten  content 
of  a  flour  largely  determines  its  bread-making 
qualities.  When  water  is  added,  the  gluten  binds 
the  particles  of  flour  together  and  the  dough,  in- 
stead of  being  flaky,  as  in  soda  biscuit  dough  or 
pie  crust,  is  made  tenacious.  This  gives  it  ability 
to  expand.  If,  on  the  other  hand,  the  flour  con- 
tains too  much  gluten,  the  dough  is  sticky.  It  is 
gluten  in  dough  that  gives  it  the  quality  of  stretch- 
ing and  rising  as  the  gas  from  the  yeast  develops 
within  it.  Thus  a  light  loaf  is  made. 

Flour  made  from  Soft  Wheat.  —  Soft  wheat  flour 
has  more  starch  and  less  gluten  than  that  which 
is  made  from  hard  wheat.  It  has  its  greatest 
value  in  the  making  of  foods  in  which  tenacity  and 
expansion  are  undesirable  or  unnecessary.  Soft 
wheat  is  better  for  crackers,  cake,  and  pastry. 
Bread  made  from  this  flour  is  white,  but  is  likely 
to  be  heavy. 

Flour  made  from  Durum  Wheat.  -  -  Durum  wheat 
flour  is  very  high  in  gluten.  It  is  used  chiefly  in 
the  manufacture  of  macaroni.  Dough  made  from 
Durum  flour  is  sticky  and  hard  to  handle.  The 


1 8o  THE  WHEAT  INDUSTRY 

bread  is  yellow  and  has  a  peculiar,  nutty  taste.  It 
holds  moisture  better  than  bread  made  from  other 
flours.  Durum  flour  is  likewise  of  value  in  blends. 
The  successful  blend  does  away  with  the  stickiness 
of  the  dough  and  lightens  the  color.  It  gives  a 
moist  bread  of  good  flavor.  Although  the  grain 
is  so  hard  that  it  has  presented  difficult  problems, 
the  use  of  Durum  flour  has  increased  rapidly  in  the 
last  few  years.  When  the  problems  of  milling  and 
baking  are  overcome,  Durum  wheat  will  undoubt- 
edly come  into  much  more  general  use. 

Graham  Flour.  —  Graham  flour  is  simply  wheat 
meal ;  that  is,  the  entire  grain  ground  into  a  pow- 
der. Since  the  branny  portions  will  not  reduce 
as  easily  as  the  inner  parts,  they  remain  coarse. 
To  overcome  this  objection,  the  bran  is  sometimes 
ground  separately.  Graham  flour  is  also  used 
chiefly  for  bread.  We  frequently  hear  that  bread 
made  from  graham  flour  is  more  nutritious  than 
that  made  from  white  flour.  Experiments  and 
tests  seem  to  show  that,  since  nutritive  value  de- 
pends upon  composition  and  digestibility,  white 
flour  yields  the  more  nourishment.  There  is  not, 
however,  a  great  difference.  Graham  flour  has 
high  protein  content,  but  also  contains  a  large  per- 
centage of  indigestible  matter. 

Whole  Wheat  Flour.  —  Entire  or  whole  wheat 
flour  suggests  a  product  identical  with  the  graham. 
This  is  not  the  case,  however,  for,  in  whole  wheat 


THE  USES  OF  WHEAT  PRODUCTS      181 

flour,  the  outer  branny  layers  of  the  grain  are  re- 
moved. Entire  wheat  flour  is  also  not  as  coarse 
as  graham.  Much  of  the  so-called  whole  wheat 
flour  is  merely  a  mixture  of  patent  flour,  middlings, 
low  grade  flour,  and  germ.  Bread  made  from  this 
flour  yields  more  energy  than  that  made  from  gra- 
ham and  less  than  that  made  from  white  flour. 


Composition  of  Breads  as  shown  by  Experimental 
Studies  l 


MATERIAL 

PROTEIN 

FAT 

CARBO- 
HYDRATES 

ASH 

Bread  made  from  Oregon  Wheat 
Flour. 

Standard  Patent     . 
Entire  Wheat     .     . 
Graham     .... 

8.32% 

949% 
9-94% 

1-37% 
1.82% 

I.83% 

88.93% 
87.24% 
85.72% 

1.38% 
1-45% 
2.51% 

Bread  made  from  Oklahoma 
Wheat  Flour. 

Standard  Patent      . 
Entire  Wheat     .     . 
Graham     .... 

16.24% 
18.06% 

18.43% 

1-02% 
1-77% 
1-94% 

82.03% 

78.75% 
77.12% 

.71      % 
1.  60   % 

2.51% 

White  Flour.  --White  flour  is  the  flour  which  is 
most  widely  used.  It  contains  about  73  per  cent 
of  the  kernel  of  the  wheat.  The  germ  and  the 
bran  are  both  removed  in  the  milling  and  the  re- 
mainder is  made  very  fine  by  repeated  grinding 


1U.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture,  Farmers'  Bulletin  No.  389. 


1 82  THE  WHEAT  INDUSTRY 

and  bolting.  It  makes  a  whiter,  lighter  loaf 
than  is  made  by  either  graham  or  entire  wheat 
flour. 

There  are  many  brands  and  grades  of  white 
flour.  By  sorting  the  various  parts  of  the  wheat 
during  its  reduction,  each  mill  produces  several 
grades,  all  of  which  differ  in  composition  and 
texture.  The  highest  grade  is  called  Best,  Fancy, 
Patent,  or  some  similar  name.  Other  grades  are 
Standard,  Choice,  and  Family.  The  several  grades 
manufactured  by  each  miller  are  peculiar  to  his 
mill.  These  differences  are  due  to  the  physical 
and  chemical  character  of  the  wheat  used,  to  mill- 
ing methods,  and  to  the  skill  of  the  miller.  Each 
miller  must  keep  his  products  uniform  so  that 
the  baking  qualities  of  the  different  grades  of 
flour  will  remain  constant  day  by  day.  Bakers 
are  so  particular  about  this  that  they  test  each 
fresh  lot  of  flour  and  report  any  variation  in  quality 
that  they  find.  The  housekeeper  likewise  prefers 
a  brand  with  uniform  bread-making  qualities  and, 
when  one  proves  unsatisfactory  in  this  respect, 
usually  changes  brands. 

Of  all  the  forms  in  which  wheat  has  been  used 
as  human  food,  bread  has  proved  the  most  satis- 
factory. It  is  palatable  and  easily  served  in  a 
variety  of  combinations.  It  is  well  digested  with 
very  little  waste.  The  protein  content  is  too  low 
for  it  to  serve  as  the  sole  article  of  diet,  but,  eaten 


THE  USES  OF  WHEAT  PRODUCTS      183 

with  other  foods,  it  is  invaluable  and  well  deserves 
its  title,  "  the  staff  of  life." 

Methods  of  Bread  Making.  —  In  past  years  bread 
making  was  done  almost  exclusively  in  the  home, 
but,  like  many  other  domestic  arts,  it  has  been 
largely  taken  over  by  the  factory.  The  home  has, 
however,  only  with  a  great  deal  of  reluctance 
given  up  the  baking  of  bread.  Until  recent  years 
the  home-baked  loaf  was  far  superior  to  the  prod- 
uct of  the  factory.  This  was  shown  in  the  con- 
tempt that  people  had  for  baker's  bread  and  in 
the  delight  that  patrons  of  bakeries  expressed  when 
afforded  an  opportunity  to  eat  home-made  bread. 
Though  now  factory-made  bread  is  usually  of  excel- 
lent quality,  the  reputation  of  the  home-made  arti- 
cle is  still  superior.  The  strength  of  this  opinion  is 
shown  in  the  fact  that  practically  every  town  and 
city  has  a  bakery  using  the  label  "  Home-made  " 
or  "  Mother's  Bread  "  for  its  product. 

Although  bakeshops  are  as  old  as  history,  for 
many  centuries  there  was  but  little  progress  in 
them.  Within  recent  years,  however,  the  baking 
business  has  been  revolutionized  to  such  an  extent 
that  even  the  men  who  have  been  responsible  for 
the  rapid  changes  are  still  marveling  at  them. 
While  some  bakeries  still  exist  in  which  there  are 
few  indications  of  progress,  in  the  great  majority 
of  cases  new  and  better  ways  are  displacing  the 
old. 


1 84  THE  WHEAT  INDUSTRY 

Scientific  Methods  of  Bread  Making.  —  The  house- 
wife and  the  old-time  baker  recognize  that  a  cer- 
tain amount  of  luck  enters  into  each  baking.  They 
cannot  produce  a  uniform  product.  Modern  bak- 
ing is  scientifically  done.  Nothing  is  left  to 
chance.  The  baker  has  studied  the  principles  of 
baking  and  understands  the  working  of  the  laws 
that  govern  his  product.  In  his  bakery  there  is 
a  laboratory  where  with  microscopes,  tubes,  bal- 
ances, and  other  instruments,  the  materials  to  be 
used  are  tested  by  experts.  By  this  means  baking 
qualities  of  the  flour  are  determined  and  uniform- 
ity is  maintained  by  blending  flours  whose  con- 
tents are  known.  The  temperature  and  the 
humidity  of  the  mixing  room  are  likewise  controlled 
to  such  an  extent  that  uniform  conditions  are 
maintained  regardless  of  weather  changes.  Flour, 
yeast,  salt,  milk,  sugar,  —  everything  put  into 
the  vat  is  weighed  in  exact  proportions.  Should 
the  flour  or  yeast  vary  or  should  a  slightly  differ- 
ent product  be  desired,  the  baker  knows  just 
what  treatment  is  needed  to  produce  the  desired 
results.  He  is  guided  by  scientific  laws. 

Sanitation  in  Bread  Making.  -  -  The  teachings 
and  demands  of  modern  sanitary  science  and  the 
desire  to  cut  down  manufacturing  expense  have 
been  factors  which  have  acted  as  a  spur  to  both 
machine  men  and  bakers.  Both  of  these  causes 
have  stimulated  a  demand  for  automatic  processes 


THE  USES  OF  WHEAT  PRODUCTS     185 

of  bread  making.  These  processes  are  in  turn 
being  improved  each  year.  Now  no  hand  need 
at  any  time  come  into  contact  with  the  bread. 
The  materials  are  weighed,  tempered  exactly,  put 
into  the  mixers,  thoroughly  combined,  and  forced 
into  troughs  in  the  fermenting  room.  When  the 
dough  has  reached  the  desired  lightness  it  is 
dropped  out  of  the  troughs  into  the  divider,  where 
it  is  cut  into  pieces  of  the  weight  desired.  These 
pieces  are  then  carried  on  a  canvas  belt  to  the 
rounder,  by  which  they  are  rolled  into  balls.  They 
are  then  conveyed  into  the  proofer.  This  is  an 
inclosed  vat  where  the  balls  are  moved  slowly  up 
and  down  until  they  recover  their  lightness. 
From  the  proofer  they  are  carried  through  the 
molder,  where  they  are  given  proper  shape.  The 
molder  drops  them  into  the  baking  pans,  which 
are  placed  on  racks  until  ready  to  be  transferred 
into  the  ovens.  After  the  loaves  have  been  taken 
from  the  oven  and  cooled,  they  pass  through  the 
wrapping  machine.  Then  they  are  ready  for  the 
delivery  wagon. 

The  bread  delivery  wagons  are  familiar  sights 
in  every  city  and  even  in  some  rural  districts. 
An  up-to-date  bread  wagon  has  a  closed  box 
which  is  lined  with  canvas  to  keep  out  the 
dust.  The  loaves  rest  on  trays  and  the  whole 
interior  is  kept  scrupulously  clean. 

The  strictly  modern  bakery  is  a  model  of  sani- 


1 86  THE  WHEAT  INDUSTRY 

tation.  Walls  and  floors  are  white  and  are  kept 
free  from  dirt.  The  workmen,  before  beginning 
their  tasks,  are  required  to  put  on  white  suits  sup- 
plied by  the  bakery.  There  is  little  opportunity 
for  contamination  of  the  bread.  It  is  true  that 
such  care  is  not  evident  in  every  bakeshop,  but 


FIG.    82.  —  Modern    method    of    delivering    bread.     The    loaves    are    wrapped 
in  waxed  paper  by  machinery  at  the  bakery. 

rigid  inspection  is  rapidly  eliminating  unsanitary 
conditions. 

The  Making  of  Biscuits  or  Crackers. -- In 
Europe  all  articles  of  food  in  the  shape  of  small 
sweetened  or  flavored  cakes  made  from  flour  are 
called  biscuits.  Such  cakes  were  at  first  unknown 


THE  USES  OF  WHEAT  PRODUCTS      187 

in  the  United  States,  and  the  term  generally 
applied  to  the  first  crude  productions  made  of 
plain  and  unsweetened  dough  was  cracker.  In 
this  country  the  term  cracker  has  continued 
to  be  used  for  the  plain,  crisp,  unflavored  product. 
But  when  our  crackers  were  introduced  into 


Courtesy  Loose-Wiles  Biscuit  Co. 
FIG.  83.  —  A  large  factory  where  biscuits,  or  crackers,  are  made. 

Europe,  they  were  included  under  the  title  of 
biscuits  and  to  some  extent  this  general  classifica- 
tion has  been  adopted  here.  Both  names  are  still 
in  use. 

The  first  cracker  which  was   produced   in  the 
United  States  was  the  pilot  or  ship  bread.     This 


1 88  THE  WHEAT  INDUSTRY 

was  a  large,  clumsy,  hand-made  crisp  loaf,  which 
was  baked  on  a  piece  of  sheet  iron  placed  on  the 
floor  of  a  tile  oven.  To-day  the  manufacture  of 
biscuits  is  a  large  industry  and  it  has  reached  a 
high  rank  in  efficiency.  Machinery  has  altogether 
taken  the  place  of  hand  labor.  The  European 
sweetened  cake  is  also  produced  in  this  country, 
where  altogether  over  five  hundred  varieties  of 
biscuit  are  manufactured.  Although  we  have  an 
increasing  export  trade  with  the  West  Indies, 
Central,  and  South  America,  our  crackers  and 
cakes  are  largely  consumed  at  home.  Attempts 
have  been  made  to  introduce  new  brands  into 
European  markets  but  they  are  soon  produced  in 
English  ovens  and  the  American  trade  declines. 
This  is  because  of  the  almost  prohibitory  com- 
petition of  foreign,  cheap  labor. 

The  manufacture  of  biscuits  demands  intelli- 
gence and  business  sagacity.  New  specialties  are 
constantly  being  produced,  and  a  host  of  artists 
are  kept  busy  originating  attractive  and  suitable 
labels  and  coverings  for  the  various  packages  in 
which  the  goods  meet  the  public.  An  afternoon 
tea  or  luncheon  is  not  complete  without  some  of 
these  dainty  biscuits.  Ice  cream  parlors  use  them 
in  enormous  quantities.  Not  a  picnic  party  plans 
an  outing  without  calling  on  the  grocer  for  a  sup- 
ply of  biscuit.  Every  vessel  that  crosses  the  ocean 
carries  them  in  its  storeroom.  They  are  used 


THE  USES  OF  WHEAT  PRODUCTS     189 

almost  everywhere  as  an  important  article  in  food 
supply. 

QUESTIONS  AND  EXERCISES 

1.  Why  do  we  usually  think  of  wheat  whenever  ref- 
erence is  made  to  bread  ?     From  what  other  grains  is  bread 
made  ? 

2.  In  what  ways  is  wheat  straw  commonly  disposed  of? 
What   manufactured   articles  in   common   use   are  made  of 
wheat  straw  ? 

3.  Why   is   wheat    not   generally   used    as    stock    feed, 
particularly  in  the  United  States  ? 

4.  Suggest  reasons  for  the  popularity  of  macaroni  as  an 
article    of   diet.     Discuss    methods    of   its    manufacture    in 
American  factories. 

5.  Why   have   cereal    breakfast   foods   come   into    such 
general  favor  ?     Generally  what  is  true  of  the  sanitary  con- 
ditions under  which  they  are  made  ? 

6.  Make  a  list  of  the  wheat  foods  sold  in  your  locality 
and  learn  where  each  is  made. 

7.  What  is  the  principal  use  of  flour  ?     How  do  flours 
made  from  hard  and  soft  wheats  differ  in  baking  qualities  ? 

8.  What  is  the  most  important  use  of  flour  made  from 
Durum  wheat  ? 

9.  Compare    graham    flour    and    the    so-called    whole 
wheat  flour  as  to  their  content  and  uses. 

10.  By  inquiry  of  grocers  and  flour  dealers,  learn  what 
brands  and  grades  of  flour  are  manufactured  or  sold  in  your 
town.     At  what  different  prices  are  they  sold  ?     Try  to  find 
out  why  some  grades  sell  at  higher  prices  than  others. 

11.  Visit,  if  possible,  a  large  bakery  and  write  the  story 
of  "The  Baking  of  Bread."     Compare  methods  with  those 
used  in  the  home. 


CHAPTER  XI 
INDUSTRIAL   REVIEW 

The  History  of  the  Wheat  Plant.  -  -  Wheat  early 
became  a  cultivated  plant.  Its  origin  precedes 
human  history.  It  was  cultivated  by  the  Chinese 
3000  years  before  the  birth  of  Christ  and,  accord- 
ing to  their  legends,  is  a  direct  gift  from  heaven. 
A  field  was  plowed  each  year  by  the  emperor  in 
preparation  for  the  planting.  Thus  he  expressed 
his  appreciation  for  the  gift,  and  by  his  work  he 
dignified  labor. 

The  Egyptians  have  a  legend  attributing  the 
origin  of  wheat  to  Osiris,  the  goddess  of  the  Nile. 
A  tomb  at  Thebes  built  probably  about  1500  B.C. 
bears  a  painting  which  shows  some  of  the  early 
cultural  methods  of  the  Egyptians. 

Wheat  is  often  referred  to  in  both  the  Old  and 
the  New  Testaments.  Job  xxxi,  40  indicates  that 
some  of  the  wheat  pests  were  known,  for  it  reads, 
'  Let  thistles  grow  instead  of  wheat."  In  the 
third  chapter  of  Matthew  we  get  a  hint  of  early 
threshing  methods  :  "  Whose  fan  is  in  his  hand, 
and  he  will  thoroughly  purge  his  floor  and  gather 

190 


INDUSTRIAL  REVIEW  191 

his  wheat  into  the  garner."  These  references 
prove  that  wheat  was  cultivated  and  was  an  im- 
portant food  at  least  among  the  peoples  of  ancient 
Egypt  and  Palestine. 

The  accounts  of  Strabo,  the  Greek  historian, 
and  of  Lippert,  a  Chaldean  writer,  point  to  the 
valleys  of  the  Tigris  and  Euphrates  as  the  original 
home  of  wheat.  The  most  widely  accepted  theory 
holds  that  there  it  was  first  domesticated.  From 
this  center  it  spread  over  western  Asia,  Africa, 
Europe,  and  then  to  the  New  World. 

Wheat  in  America.  --So  far  as  is  known,  wheat 
was  not  grown  in  America  before  the  discovery 
by  Columbus.  It  is  said  that  a  few  grains  were 
found  in  some  rice  which  was  used  as  food  by 
Cortez  and  that  these  were  sown  before  1530. 
Missionaries  introduced  wheat  into  California  in 
1769.  Gosnold,  in  1602,  brought  some  wheat  into 
the  eastern  part  of  the  continent,  where  it  was 
planted  on  the  Elizabeth  Islands  off  the  southern 
coast  of  Massachusetts.  Although  wheat  was 
first  cultivated  in  Virginia  in  1607,  the  region  of 
its  first  commercial  importance  in  North  America 
was  northern  Maryland  and  southern  Pennsyl- 
vania. Baltimore  was  the  first  great  wheat-ex- 
porting city  of  the  North  American  colonies. 

Motive  Power  in  Wheat  Production.  —  Man. 
—  Man's  own  energy  was  the  only  power  used  in 
cultivation  for  a  long  time.  To  us  this  seems  a 


192  THE  WHEAT  INDUSTRY 

low  type  of  development.  Progress  was  very 
slow  and  each  step  forward  covered  much  time. 
As  long  as  man  was  using  his  own  energy  as  mo- 
tive power,  he  had  little  left  to  expend  for  other 
purposes  and,  thus  unable  to  invent  better  means, 
he  continued  to  scratch  the  soil  with  sticks.  Bar- 
barous and  semicivilized  people  are  still  found 
in  various  parts  of  the  world  who  raise  wheat  in 
much  the  same  manner  as  did  prehistoric  man. 
Among  them,  conditions  are  such  that  human 
labor  is  indeed  the  most  economical. 

The  Use  of  Animals  'in  Raising  Wheat.  -  -  The 
utilization  of  animal  power  marks  a  great  step  in 
advance.  Then  with  the  advent  of  the  use  of 
oxen,  camels,  mules,  and  horses,  man  was  relieved 
of  much  of  the  drudgery  of  farm  work  and  was 
required  to  make  higher  use  of  his  intellect. 

The  Use  of  Steam  and  Gas  Power  in  Raising  Wheat. 
—  Next  came  the.  use  of  steam  and  gas  power, 
forms  which  are  now  of  great  importance  in  the 
large  wheat  regions.  Though  they  have  been 
applied  to  many  phases  of  wheat  production,  they 
are  most  widely  used  in  plowing  and  threshing. 

Plowing.  -  -  The  most  primitive  plow  known 
was  merely  a  crooked  stick  that  man  used  in 
loosening  the  soil.  Some  of  the  early  plows  had 
a  piece  of  wood  attached  which  projected  forward 
so  that  two  men  could  pull  it.  Two  men  likewise 
held  the  plow  in  the  ground  by  means  of  a  handle 


INDUSTRIAL   REVIEW 


behind.  This  was  hard  work,  and  the  plowing 
was  poorly  done.  The  plow  pictured  on  Egyptian 
monuments  was  better  shaped  and  was  tipped 
with  iron.  Long  before  the  time  of  Christ,  how- 
ever, plows  were  made  so  that  animals  could  be 
hitched  to  them.  Plows  are  now  of  various  kinds, 
adapted  to  the  various  types  of  soils  as  well  as  to 
the  various  forms- 
of  motive  power. 
The  depth  of 
plowing  also  can 
be  regulated  to 
suit  varying  con- 
ditions. Thus  in 
contrast  with  the 
old,  the  modern 
plow  is  a  fairly  complex  machine. 

Sowing.  -- following  nature's  method  of  seed- 
ing, man  first  scattered  the  grain  over  the  ground. 
Practice  made  the  sower  so  skillful  that  the  re- 
quired amount  of  wheat  was  scattered  evenly  over 
the  field.  Pictures  of  the  ancient  sower  clearly 
bring  out  the  rhythmic  tread  and  the  swing  of 
the  arm  as  he  threw  the  grain  from  the  bag  which 
hung  from  his  shoulder.  This  method  of  sowing 
was  called  broadcasting,  and  is  still  followed  where 
farms  are  small  or  where  the  standards  of  farming 
are  low.  Hand  sowing  was  hard  and  tedious  work. 
In  time  mechanical  broadcasters  came  into  use 


FIG.  84.  —  The  wooden  plow  in  use  during 
colonial  times  in  North  America.  The  iron  point 
was  the  most  costly  part. 


194  THE  WHEAT  INDUSTRY 

and  such  machines  are  still  found  in  operation. 
Where  large  areas  are  to  be  sown  the  wagon 
broadcaster  is  the  most  popular  of  these  machines. 
With  this  implement  over  a  hundred  acres  can  be 
sown  per  day,  whereas  by  hand  one  man  can  sow 
only  about  sixteen  acres.  The  machine  may  also 
be  regulated  to  sow  thick  or  thin  as  may  be  de- 
sired. A  later  method  of  planting  which  devel- 
oped is  drilling.  This  has  an  advantage  over 
broadcasting  in  that  the  seed  is  not  scattered  by 
the  wind,  and  is  planted  at  a  uniform  depth. 

Harrowing.  --  Some  method  of  leveling  and 
pulverizing  the  soil  has  always  been  used  as  far 
back  as  we  are  able  to  trace  the  story  of  agricul- 
ture. The  oldest  method  known  was  to  drag  a 
branching  limb  of  a  tree  back  and  forth  over  the 
field.  Sometimes  several  branches  were  fastened 
together,  thus  covering  a  wider  area.  This  method 
is  common  even  now  in  some  countries.  Later, 
wooden  pegs  were  fastened  into  branches,  making 
thus  a  crude  harrow  which,  drawn  over  the  fields, 
would  comb  and  rake  the  soil  to  an  even  surface. 
Such  harrows  were  used  by  the  Romans  before 
the  Christian  era.  They  resembled  in  their  essen- 
tials the  modern  machines.  Improvements  have 
added  to  the  effectiveness  of  this  implement  and 
it  is  now  made  in  sections  so  that  it  will  better 
reach  uneven  surfaces.  Likewise  in  the  modern 
implement  the  teeth  are  so  adjusted  by  means  of 


INDUSTRIAL  REVIEW  195 

a  lever  that  they  may  be  set  at  the  proper  angle 
for  best  results. 

Harvesting.  -  -  Means  of  gathering  the  crop 
seem  to  have  presented  the  greatest  difficulty, 
and  very  radical  changes  have  taken  place  even 
within  recent  times.  The  fundamental  princi- 
ples involved  in  the  other  machinery  were  applied 
in  the  most  ancient  times.  Harvesting  methods 
remained  crude  and  inadequate  through  all  the 
early  centuries. 

The  Sickle. — While  the  first  method  of  gather- 
ing grain  was  probably  by  pulling  it  up  and  break- 
ing off  the  heads  either  by  hand  or  with  a  crude 
comb,  the  use  of  simple  machinery  began  early. 
Sickles  of  bronze  and  iron  have  been  found  among 
ancient  ruins  in  Europe.  Egyptian  harvest 
methods  in  use  long  before  the  Christian  era  are 
represented  in  their  ancient  paintings.  There 
sickle-like  implements  were  used,  and  the  grain 
was  either-  cut  just  below  the  heads  or  was  cut 
low  down  and  bound  into  sheaves.  Ancient 
Chinese,  Japanese,  Greeks,  and  Romans  also  used 
sickles.  The  earliest  form  of  sickle  seems  to  have 
consisted  of  a  slightly  curved  blade  of  iron  or 
bronze  fastened  at  one  end  to  a  straight  handle. 
Soon  the  blade  became  serrated,  strengthened, 
and  more  curved.  The  sickle  also  became  lighter. 
A  man  cut  on  an  average  about  an  acre  a  day. 
Usually  the  grain  was  gathered  into  sheaves  and 


196  THE  WHEAT  INDUSTRY 

bound  with  a  handful  of  straw.  Even  though  the 
sickle  was  one  of  the  earliest  instruments,  it  is  still 
used  in  small  fields  in  Palestine,  China,  Spain,  and 
other  places. 

The  Cradle.  —  Another  ancient  reaping  instru- 
ment was  the  cradle.  It  was  operated  with  both 
hands  and  carried  a  framework  to  collect  the  grain 
as  it  was  cut.  Americans  perfected  the  cradle ; 
and,  in  the  perfected  form,  the  cradle  rapidly 
replaced  the  sickle.  It  seems  strange  that  so 
simple  an  implement  and  one  used  in  prehistoric 
times  should  not  sooner  have  reached  a  perfected 
form.  For  thousands  of  years  the  sickle  and  the 
crude  cradle  had  been  practically  the  only  har- 
vesting implements  used  in  the  wheat  harvest. 
The  American  cradle  came  into  use  during  the 
Revolutionary  War.  It  marked  the  beginning  of 
inventions  which  have  led  to  the  complicated 
machinery  of  to-day. 

The  Header. — Ancient  writings  give  an  ac- 
count of  a  crude  harvesting  machine  which  was 
used  in  Gaul  about  70  A.D.  According  to  Pliny's 
description  this  was  a  header.  It  consisted  of  a 
box  mounted  on  two  wheels.  In  front  of  the  box 
was  a  set  of  teeth  made  of  sticks  and  set  close 
together.  An  ox  yoked  to  the  rear  moved  this 
implement  through  the  field.  The  teeth  tore  off 
the  heads  of  the  wheat,  which  a  man  then  raked 
into  the  box. 


INDUSTRIAL   REVIEW  197 

This  machine  fell  into  disuse  and  was  forgotten 
for  many  centuries,  but  its  history  seems  to  have 
served  as  the  basis  for  the  first  English  inventions. 
An  early  English  header  was  planned  by  William 
Pitt,  and  constructed  about  1786.  It  had  a  re- 
volving cylinder  set  with  teeth  by  means  of  which 
the  heads  of  wheat  were  caught  and  carried  over 


Courtesy  International  Hartester  Co. 
FIG.  85.  —  The  first  reaper. 

into  a  box  at  the  rear.  This  was  the  first  of  a 
series  of  machines  which  led  to  the  perfection  of 
the  modern  header  sixty-three  years  later. 

The  Reaper.  -  -  In  the  meantime  a  set  of  ma- 
chines built  along  different  lines  was  invented. 
These  machines  were  called  reapers.  The  first 
reapers  made  by  the  English  had  not  proved  very 
successful,  when,  in  1803,  American  machines 
began  to  appear.  These  soon  became  the  leading 


198 


THE  WHEAT  INDUSTRY 


reapers  both  in  the  United  States  and  in  Europe. 
Although  they  are  seldom  used  now  in  harvesting 
the  grain  in  the  United  States,  the  American 
reapers  are  still  the  best  on  the  market.  Reapers, 
when  the  grain  is  cut,  leave  it  about  the  field  in 
loose  bunches.  This  grain  must  then  be  bound 


FIG.  86.  —  Modern  harvesting  methods.     Some- 

into  sheaves  by  hand.  In  the  United  States, 
labor  was  scarce  and  large  land  areas  favored  ex- 
tensive cultivation.  Because  of  this  condition,  the 
demand  for  a  binding  attachment  in  connection 
with  the  reaping  machines  became  urgent  and 
served  to  stimulate  invention.  These  inventions 


INDUSTRIAL  REVIEW 


199 


have  resulted  in  the  present  self-binding  harvester, 
an  American  product.  It  is  really  a  combination 
of  the  good  points  of  all  other  types  of  machines 
with  a  binding  device  added. 

The  Self-binder.  -  -  The  story  of  the  struggle  to 
make  the  machine  bind  the  grain  is  a  very  inter- 


times  several  binders  are  pulled  by  one  tractor. 

esting  one.  The  first  attempts  were  made  about 
1850,  but  the  efforts  were  not  rewarded  with  success 
until  more  than  twenty  years  later.  The  process 
looks  so  easy  now.  We  watch  the  binder  collect 
a  bunch  of  grain,  encircle  it  with  twine,  tie  the 
knot,  cut  the  twine,  and  drop  the  bundle ;  and  we 


200  THE  WHEAT  INDUSTRY 

are  apt  to  lose  sight  of  the  fact  that  hundreds  of 
attempts  to  solve  this  problem  were  made  before 
success  came. 

We  have  seen  that  the  credit  for  working  out  the 
foundation  principles  of  harvesting  machinery 
belongs  to  English  inventors.  American  genius, 
however,  improved  and  perfected  the  machines 
and  thus  made  them  practical.  The  English 
originated  the  idea,  but  the  Americans  brought 
about  the  real  development  of  harvesting 
machinery.  American  harvesting  machines  are 
the  most  nearly  perfect  in  the  world  and  are  being 
used  in  all  wheat  countries. 

Threshing  the  Grain.  —  In  threshing,  no  doubt, 
the  first  grain  was  shelled  out  by  hand.  There 
are,  however,  records  of  many  other  primitive 
ways  of  securing  the  wheat.  Probably  one  of  the 
first  was  to  pound  the  grain  out  with  the  sticks 
or  to  beat  the  sheaf  upon  the  ground.  As  produc- 
tion increased,  these  methods  became  too  tedious. 
The  ancient  Egyptians  spread  the  loosened  sheaves 
on  a  circular  inclosure  of  hard  ground  from  fifty 
to  one  hundred  feet  in  diameter  and  drove  animals 
round  and  round  over  it  so  as  to  tread  out  the 
grain.  This  inclosure-  was  usually  an  elevated 
piece  of  ground  so  that  the  wind  could  be  utilized 
in  clearing  away  the  chaff.  Since  such  a  method 
was  injurious  to  the  grain,  the  threshing  sledge 
gradually  took  the  place  of  treading.  This  device 


INDUSTRIAL  REVIEW  201 

was  either  a  platform  with  a  grooved  bottom  or  a 
heavy  spiked  roller  which  was  drawn  over  the 
threshing  floor  by  oxen.  The  Greeks  likewise 
used  the  sledge  and  it  is  even  yet  doing  service  in 
some  countries.  A  crude  thresher  now  used  in 
Italy  appears  to  be  a  descendant  of  the  sledge. 
It  is  a  tapering  roller  fastened  to  an  upright  pole 
located  at  the  center  of  the  threshing  floor  and 
pulled  around  at  the  outer  end  by  oxen.  Both  of 
these  methods  have  been  used  in  the  United 
States. 

Horses  were  used  in  early  times  to  tramp  out 
the  grain,  and  sledges  were  found  as  late  as  1830. 
The  flail,  which  was  in  common  use  as  late  as  1860, 
probably  grew  out  of  the  early  method  of  beating 
with  sticks.  It  consisted  of  two  shaped  sticks 
fastened  together  at  one  end  with  stout  thongs.  One 
stick  was  the  handle,  the  other  the  beater.  In  1732 
a  Scotchman  worked  out  what  was  then  considered 
a  wonderful  invention.  He  united  a  large  num- 
ber of  flails  which  were  driven  by  water  power. 
All  the  early  machines  following  this  were  produced 
by  the  Scotch,  and  they  really  furnish  the  principles 
of  the  modern  thresher. 

The  first  threshing  machines  merely  shelled  out 
the  grain.  Improvements  which  involved  years  of 
experimental  study  were  gradually  added.  Fully 
five  to  ten  per  cent  of  the  grain  was  lost  in  these 
hand  methods  of  threshing  and  the  first  machines 


202 


THE  WHEAT  INDUSTRY 


did  no  better.  The  modern  machine  catches  practi- 
cally all  of  the  grain.  A  cleansing  device  was  an 
early  addition  to  the  thresher  by  which  all  straw 
and  chaff  was  removed  in  the  one  process.  Other 
improvements  reduced  the  noise  and  lessened  the 
power  necessary  to  run  them.  Then  came  the 
self-feeder,  the  band  cutter,  and  the  straw  stacker. 
These  attachments  not  only  reduced  the  number 


FIG.  87.  —  The  new  method  of  threshing  —  the  combine. 

of  men  needed  but  saved  time  and  added  to  the 
efficiency  of  the  work.  Threshing  machines  began 
to  come  into  common  use  in  England  about  1820 
and  were  widely  used  in  the  United  States  in  1835. 
At  first  the  threshers  were  run  by  water  power  or 
by  wind.  Later  horse  power  became  common. 
It  was  not  until  about  1876,  however,  that  steam 
began  to  come  into  use.  Practically  all  the 


INDUSTRIAL  REVIEW  203 

threshing  in  large  wheat  areas  is  now  done  by 
steam  or  gas  power. 

The  Development  of  the  Wheat  Industry.  -  -The 
extensive  fields  of  the  New  World  served  as  the 
direct  incentives  for  the  invention  of  wheat- 
producing  machinery.  Population  was  small ; 
labor,  scarce ;  and  opportunities  for  production 
were  great.  Mechanical  means  for  assisting 
human  labor  were  necessary  and  so  inventive 
genius  responded.  Modern  machinery  is  the  re- 
sult. In  other  new  fields  machinery  likewise 
made  production  profitable,  so  that  the  wheat- 
raising  industry  led  to  rapid  settlement  of  Australia 
and  Argentina.  The  Old  World  found  that  machin- 
ery could  do  much  to  increase  the  amount  of 
production  and  lower  the  cost.  Thus  modern 
methods  are  characteristic  of  every  great  wheat 
country.  These  methods  must  of  course  vary 
with  local  conditions. 

It  is  interesting  in  this  respect  to  learn  how  the 
different  nations  take  their  places  in  the  produc- 
tion and  utilization  of  the  world's  wheat  crop. 

QUESTIONS  AND  EXERCISES 

1.  Suggest   reasons   why   the    Chinese   regard   wheat   as 
a  direct  gift  from  Heaven. 

2.  How   do   the   legends   of  the    origin   of  wheat   show 
similarity  in  recognizing  its  qualities  ? 

3.  Account  for  the  fact  that  wheat  was  one  of  the  first 


204  THE  WHEAT  INDUSTRY 

grains  planted   by  the  Virginia   colonists.     Where  was  the 
seed  wheat  grown  ? 

4.  Why  was  improvement  in   methods  of  tillage  very 
slow  as  long  as  man  did  all  his  work  by  hand  ? 

5.  Contrast  the  primitive  methods  of  plowing  with  the 
modern. 

6.  How  are  seeds  planted  bys  nature  ?     How  has  man 
improved  nature's  method  of  planting  wheat  ? 

7.  What  were  the  primitive  harvest  implements  ? 

8.  Give  a  brief  resume  of  threshing  operations  showing 
development  of  methods  from  ancient  to  modern. 

9.  Explain    how   the    large    fields    of   the    New   World 
served  as  incentives  to  progress  in  wheat  production  methods. 

10.  How  did  the  increasing  population  of  European  and 
American  countries  serve  to  stimulate  inventions  ? 

11.  Explain  how  improved  methods  of  production  have 
affected  the  settlement  and  development  of  new  wheat  lands. 


CHAPTER  XII 
THE   WHEAT  COUNTRIES 

Now  that  we  have  studied  wheat,  its  form, 
the  manner  of  its  growth,  and  its  uses,  we  are 
ready  to  learn  what  it  means  to  the  life  of  different 
peoples.  It  is  of  interest  to  know  where  wheat  is 
grown,  to  what  extent,  and  why.  So  we  are  to 
study  briefly  those  countries  that  rank  high  in  the 
production  of  this  crop,  for  the  purpose  of  learning 
how  wheat  contributes  to  their  prosperity  and  how 
it  affects  other  countries  by  entering  into  the 
markets  of  the  world.  Although  wheat  is  grown 
to  some  extent  in  nearly  every  country,  our  study 
must  necessarily  be  confined  to  the  countries 
where  wheat  is  of  considerable  commercial  impor- 
tance. By  this  is  meant  either  the  countries  which 
produce  much  wheat  to  sell  or  those  which  buy 
from  other  countries  and  so  are  important  as 
markets  for  wheat.  For  illustration,  Greece, 
China,  and  Brazil  produce  wheat,  and  they  also 
buy  some  wheat  and  flour,  but  since  in  those 
countries  the  wheat  trade  is  not  very  important, 
we  omit  them  from  our  list. 

The  various  wheat  regions  have  different  con- 

205 


2O6 


THE  WHEAT  INDUSTRY 


THE  WHEAT  COUNTRIES  207 

ditions  of  soils,  climates,  and  peoples,  hence 
methods  of  producing  and  handling  the  crop 
are  greatly  varied.  Since  the  discussion  of  wheat 
production  has  been  based  largely  on  the  methods 
practiced  in  our  own  country,  the  contrast  will 
be  more  vivid  if  we  begin  with  the  wheat  regions 
which  are  far  from  the  United  States.  For  our 
first  studies  we  have  selected  the  countries  of  the 
southern  hemisphere.  These  will  be  followed  by 
those  of  North  America,  Asia,  and  Europe  in  the 
order  named. 

WHEAT    IN    AUSTRALIA 

Australia.  —  Location  and  Extent.  —  In  a  position 
on'  the  globe  almost  directly  opposite  that  of 
the  United  States,  lies  Australia,  which  may 
be  called  either  the  largest  island  or  the  small- 
est continent.  Until  commerce  became  important, 
it  was  almost  completely  isolated  from  all  other 
lands.  Its  native  plant  and  animal  life  is  char- 
acterized by  forms  which  are  found  on  no  other 
continent.  Its  geographical  position  is  stated 
as  latitude  10°  39'  to  39°  n'  south  and  longi- 
tude 113°  to  135°  east.  Its  approximate  length, 
east  and  west,  is  2200  miles  and  its  breadth, 
north  and  south,  1300  miles.  Although  it  has  an 
area  nearly  equal  to  that  of  the  United  States 
proper,  its  population  is  only  one  eighteenth  as 
great.  Its  importance  in  the  wheat  industry  is 


208  THE  WHEAT  INDUSTRY 

shown  by  the  fact  that  it  generally  exports  nearly 
three  fourths  as  much  wheat  as  does  the  United 
States. 

The  Location  of  the  Wheat-producing  Area.  --The 
wheat-producing  regions  are  confined  at  present 
almost  entirely  to  the  southeastern  and  south- 
western parts  of  the  continent.  Of  the  two,  the 
southeastern  district  is  by  far  the  more  important. 
Some  wheat  is  raised  in  the  interior  under  irriga- 
tion, but  its  quantity  is  not  great.  Still,  in  spite 
of  the  localized  areas,  wheat  is  the  most  important 
crop  grown  in  Australia.  This  is  shown  by  the 
fact  that  of  the  arable  land  about  63  per  cent  is  at 
present  planted  to  that  crop,  while  there  is  but 
17  per  cent  in  hay,  6  per  cent  in  oats,  and  14  per 
cent  in  other  crops. 

The  Climate  of  the  Wheat-producing  Area.  --The 
.climate  is  the  chief  factor  which  controls  wheat 
production.  The  northern  and  eastern  parts  of 
the  continent  lie  in  the  region  of  the  southeast 
trade  winds.  These  winds  bring  moisture  to  the 
eastern  portion.  To  the  westward  there  is  a  range 
of  mountains  called  the  Australian  Alps  whose 
altitude  is  so  great  that  it  serves  to  condense  the 
moisture  on  the  east  slopes  and  highlands  and 
leaves  the  western  slopes  dry.  Since  the  western 
plateaus  are  not  high  enough  to  cause  condensa- 
tion of  moisture  to  any  great  extent,  these  condi- 
tions produce  a  very  dry,  desert-like  interior  of 


THE  WHEAT  COUNTRIES 


209 


Courtesy  Dept.  of  Agriculture,  New  South  Wales. 

FIG.  89.  —  Harvesting  methods    in   Australia :  /  and  2,  use  of    the  binder ; 
3,  the  stripper-harvester,  strips  heads  from  stalks ;  4,  wheat  in  sacks ;  5,  threshing. 


2IO 


THE  WHEAT  INDUSTRY 


the  continent.  This  interior  region  is  often  called 
the  Dead  Heart  of  Australia.  The  monsoons 
bring  some  moisture  to  the  northern  coast  region 
as  do  the  west  winds  to  the  southwest  coast. 
Winter  is  the  season  of  most  abundant  rainfall 
in  the  southwestern  part  of  the  country,  and  for 


FIG.   90.  —  Wheat  in   shock  in  New  South  Wales.     Shocks  there  are  generally 

called  stooks. 

the  southeast  districts  a  large  part  of  the  rainfall 
occurs  in  the  spring.  In  considering  Australia,  it 
must  be  remembered  that  the  seasons  there  are 
the  reverse  of  those  in  the  United  States.  Our 
winters  occur  during  their  summers.  The  tem- 
perature is  generally  warm.  The  lowlands  in 
the  southern  part  of  the  country  are  never  cold, 
and  the  northern  part  is  of  course  tropical. 


THE  WHEAT  COUNTRIES  211 

The  Methods  of  Cultivation.  —  The  chief  reason 
for  the  extensive  growth  of  wheat  in  this  country 
is  that  it  will  yield  fairly  well  even  with  an  annual 
rainfall  as  low  as  18  or  20  inches.  This  leads  also 
to  extensive  rather  than  to  intensive  farming. 
Fields  are  large,  and  population  low.  The  acreage 
per  capita  is  about  four  times  that  of  the  United 
States. 

Wheat  growing  in  Australia  must  contend  not 


FIG.  gi.  —  Hauling  bundles  to  stack. 

only  with  uncertain  rainfall  but  also  with  insect 
pests  and  rusts.  The  latter  are  very  active  and 
live  through  the  winter  on  the  seed  wheat.  Scarc- 
ity of  labor  at  harvest  time  is  another  difficulty, 
this  being  especially  true  in  seasons  of  heavy 
yields. 

The  Use  of  Machinery.- -The  work  is  done  al- 
most entirely  by  machinery.  Plowing  and  seeding 
are  done  in  very  much  the  same  manner  as  in  the 
United  States.  In  many  districts  the  harvesting 


212  THE  WHEAT  INDUSTRY 

is  performed  by  huge  machines  which  cut  or 
strip  and  thresh  at  once.  These  are  drawn  by 
engines  in  which  straw,  because  of  its  cheapness, 
is  usually  used  for  fuel.  One  of  the  first  stripper- 
threshers  was  an  Australian  invention.  These 
machines  strip  the  heads  from  the  plants  and  leave 
the  straw  standing  in  the  field.  Such  methods  of 
reaping  require  the  wheat  to  be  dry,  ripe,  and 
fairly  clean  of  weeds.  Both  the  colonial  and 


FIG.  92.  —  Stacking  wheat  in  Australia. 

English  home  governments  have  offered  bounties 
and  prizes  in  order  to  encourage  thorough  and 
progressive  methods  of  labor.  The  harvest  season 
lasts  from  December  to  January. 

The  Production  of  Wheat  in  Australia. — Australia 
produces  about  the  same  yield  per  acre  as  the 
United  States,  the  general  average  being  from  12  to 
15  bushels  per  acre.  The  yield,  which  depends  on 
the  seasons,  fluctuates  very  much  from  year  to 
year.  The  total  production  in  191 1  was  98,109,000 


THE  WHEAT  COUNTRIES 


213 


bushels,  but  dropped  to  73,894,000  in  1912. 1 
This  fluctuation  is  not  unusual  in  amount. 
Generally  speaking,  the  total  production  of 
Australia  is  about  the  same  as  that  of  Kansas. 
White  wheat  is  used  almost  universally  as  seed, 
and  the  varieties  of  commercial  importance  have 
all  been  introduced  from  foreign  lands.  The 
grain  is  of  a  bright,  clear  color,  of  even  texture,  is 
rich  in  gluten,  and  is  of  fine  milling  quality. 

Production  of  Wheat^  1913 


STATE 

ACREAGE 

TOTAL  CROP 

YIELD  PER 
ACRE 

Queensland 

125  ooo 

2  038  ooo  bu 

16  2  bu 

New  South  Wales         .     . 
Victoria     

2,231,000 
2,o85,OOO 

33,499,000    " 

27.OCO.OOO     " 

i5.o  « 

120  " 

South  Australia 
Western  Australia 
Tasmania       

2,O8O,OOO 

793,000 

2C.OOO 

22,174,000     ' 

9,457,000   ' 
6^0,000   " 

A  ^.y 

10.6  " 
11.9  «« 
260  " 

Total  Australia        .     .     . 

7,339,000 

94,868,000    ' 

12.9  " 

The  Transportation  of  Wheat.  -  -  Roads  and  Rail- 
roads. -  -  Transportation  facilities  are  still  inade- 
quate. Since  there  is  but  one  partly  navigable 
stream  on  the  whole  continent,  chief  dependence 
must  be  placed  on  roads,  many  of  which  the  state 
builds  and  maintains  with  convict  labor.  The 


1  Year  Book  of  U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agriculture,  1913. 


2i4  THE  WHEAT  INDUSTRY 

railways  are  also  owned  largely  by  the  states. 
Unfortunately,  however,  the  various  states  have 
different  gauge  roads,  a  fact  which  causes  reload- 
ing at  state  lines. 

The  Exportation  of  Wheat.  —  Although  her  total 
production  is  not  much  greater  than  that  of  one 
of  the  largest  wheat-producing  states  of  our  own 


FIG.  93.  —  Characteristic  wheat  stacks  in  Australia. 

country,  Australia  exports  large  quantities  of 
wheat.  This  is  because  of  her  small  population. 
The  exports  in  1911  amounted  to  over  63,319,000 
bushels.  The  amount  which  was  exported  by  the 
United  States  in  the  same  year  was  83,330,000 
bushels.  The  principal  export  centers  are  Mel- 
bourne and  Sydney.  The  latter  city  is  the  terminal 
for  many  steamship  lines.  Most  of  the  export 
trade  is  to  Great  Britain  and  to  British  colonies, 


THE  WHEAT  COUNTRIES  215 

especially  those  of  South  Africa.  This  has  be- 
come especially  true  in  recent  years  because  of 
the  enactment  of  tariff  laws  which  make  this 
mutual  trade  very  advantageous.  The  raw  wheat 
is  exchanged  in  the  mother  country  for  manufac- 
tured articles  which  are  needed  in  Australia. 

QUESTIONS  AND  EXERCISES 

1.  Where  is  Australia  located  in  comparison  with  the 
United  States  ?     How  large  is  it  ?     Of  what  country  is  it  a 
colony  ? 

2.  Explain  how  the  climate  of  Australia  limits  wheat 
raising  to  certain  portions  of  the  continent. 

3.  Suggest  reasons  why  large  wheat  fields  predominate. 

4.  What    are   the    chief   problems   of  successful   wheat 
production  which  the  Australian  farmer  must  meet  ? 

5.  How  does  the  English  government  encourage  Austra- 
lian agriculture  ? 

6.  Why  is  England  vitally  interested  in  promoting  wheat 
growing  in  Australia  ? 

7.  What  is  true  of  the  quality  of  Australian  wheat  ? 

8.  Why  is  the  average  yield  per  acre  not  very  high  ? 

9.  Why   can  Australia   export   a  large  per  cent  of  the 
wheat  she  produces  ? 

10.  What  countries  and  colonies  serve  as  the  principal 
markets  for  Australian  wheat  ?  Explain  the  advantages  of 
this  marketing  situation. 


2l6 


THE  WHEAT  INDUSTRY 


3M01  \H  B  "i m?  \        ^x-o-^.     v^y-^-L-,  _^< 


FIG.  94.  —  Map  of  Argentina. 


CHAPTER  XIII 
WHEAT  IN  ARGENTINA 

Position    and    Extent    of    the    Country.  —  The 

Argentine  Republic  is  the  greatest  wheat-producing 
country  in  the  southern  hemisphere.  Although 
we  may  remember  its  location  fairly  well  from 
previous  study,  it  will  help  us  to  look  up  its  lati- 
tude and  longitude  position  in  some  geography 
textbook.  We  shall  then  note  that  its  north  and 
south  extent  is  greater  than  that  of  the  United 
States.  We  shall  note  also  that  it  is  situated  nearly 
as  far  south  of  the  equator  as  the  United  States  is 
north.  Because  of  this  position,  the  seasons  there, 
as  in  Australia,  are  the  reverse  of  those  in  our  own 
country.  It  has  an  area  of  1,139,979  square  miles. 
This  is  more  than  one  third  the  area  of  the 
United  States  proper.  With  its  population  of  7,080,- 
ooo  (1912)  it  thus  averages  only  6.2  inhabitants 
per  square  mile. 

The  Location  of  the  Wheat-producing  Area.— 
The  region  of  most  successful  wheat  production  is  to 
the  west  of  Buenos  Aires.     It  extends  as  far  north 
as  latitude  30°,  and  on  the  south  the  limit  has  not 
yet  been  reached.     The  greater  part  of  the  wheat 

217 


218  THE  WHEAT  INDUSTRY 

is,  however,  raised  between  parallels  30°  and  40° 
south  latitude.  Prior  to  1877  not  enough  wheat 
was  grown  to  supply  home  needs,  but  since  that 
time  Argentina  has  been  regularly  an  exporting 
country.  In  1912  the  wheat  area  was  17,089,000 
acres,  and  even  then  it  is  estimated  that  only 
twenty  per  cent  of  the  possible  area  for  wheat  was 
used.  Wheat  growing  is  moving  southward  and 
westward.  With  increased  population  and  the 
building  of  new  railroads,  the  wheat-growing 
region  is  rapidly  being  extended,  so  that  within  a 
few  years  the  acreage  promises  to  be  doubled. 

The  Topography  of  the  Area.  -  -  The  wheat-grow- 
ing region  is  a  vast  plain.  It  is  broken  by  few  hills, 
and  slopes  from  the  Andes  and  other  lofty  moun- 
tains in  the  west  and  north  gradually  toward  the 
Atlantic.  The  soil  is  for  the  most  part  fairly  deep, 
is  quite  fertile,  open,  and  favorable  to  natural 
drainage. 

The  Climate  of  the  Area.  -  -  The  climate  is  such 
that  the  soil  can  be  tilled  at  almost  any  time  of 
the  year.  Unless  it  is  a  cold,  dry  winter  and  the 
pastures  become  bare,  the  farmer  is  able  to  work 
his  animals  throughout  the  winter  with  very  little 
dry  feed.  In  the  wheat  region  the  yearly  rainfall 
varies  from  9  to  48  inches.  If  a  wet  summer  is 
followed  by  a  warm,  open  winter,  the  wheat  is 
likely  to  suffer  from  the  resulting  heavy  growth  of 
weeds.  When  there  is  rain  during  the  warm  winter, 


WHEAT  IN  ARGENTINA 


219 


this  condition  is  made  much  worse.  Cold  fogs 
and  frosts  which  occasionally  come  late  in  the 
spring  also  cause  serious  losses  to  wheat  growers. 
The  summers,  likewise,  sometimes  become  ex- 
ceedingly hot,  a  case  in  which  plants  must  be  very 
strong  and  healthy  and  be  well  rooted  if  they  are 


FIG.  95.  —  Fifty  harvesting  machines   going  into    the  wheat    field  from  a  small 
town  in  Argentina. 

to  produce  crops.  Since  the  winds  are  not  usually 
severe,  this  menace  is  not  great.  Droughts,  how- 
ever, in  many  sections  of  the  country  often  work 
great  damage. 

The   Kinds   of   Wheat   grown   in   Argentina.  - 
The  wheat-growing  region  may,  on  the  basis   of 


220  THE  WHEAT  INDUSTRY 

kind  of  wheat  produced,  be  classified  into  three 
main  divisions  :  the  hard  Durum,  the  semi-soft, 
and  the  semi-hard  wheat  districts. 

The  Durum  Wheat.  -  -  The  hard  Durum,  or 
macaroni  wheat,  district  is  the  northernmost 
division,  lying  approximately  between  parallels 
29°  and  32°  south  latitude.  There,  the  general 
dryness  of  the  air,  the  warm  temperature,  and 
the  sandy  soil  favor  wheat  of  this  kind.  The 
district  is  not  large  and  the  wheat  produced  is 
almost  all  used  for  home  consumption  in  the  form 
of  macaroni  and  similar  foods.  North  of  this 
district  wheat  production  has  not  been  found 
profitable. 

The  Semi-Soft  Wheat.  -  -  The  semi-soft  wheat 
district,  which  is  by  far  of  greatest  importance 
now,  lies  in  central  Argentina,  between  parallels 
32°  and  38°  south  latitude.  This  is  the  region 
nearest  Buenos  Aires  ;  and,  for  this  reason,  mar- 
keting conditions  have  been  more  favorable  than 
for  the  newer  sections  to  the  south.  The  common 
bread  wheats  are  here  grown.  Of  these  there  are 
numerous  varieties,  among  which  the  Barletta, 
Russian,  Hungarian,  and  French  are  the  best 
known.  The  Barletta -wheat  is  especially  worthy 
of  note,  for  it  has  proved  to  be  the  most  popular. 
It  resembles  the  Turkey  Red  of  Kansas  and 
Nebraska,  although  it  is  not  so  hard.  It  was 
originally  introduced  from  Italy  and  has  proved 


WHEAT  IN  ARGENTINA  221 

well  adapted  to  Argentine  conditions.  The  grain 
is  smooth,  fat,  dark  colored,  and  keeps  well  in 
shipment,  a  quality  very  desirable  in  export 
wheats.  It  is  grown  to  some  extent  in  all  the 
regions,  but  its  quality  varies  somewhat  with  the 
soil  and  climatic  conditions  under  which  it  is 
grown.  The  Barletta  wheat  which  is  raised  near 
Buenos  Aires  is  not  as  hard,  and  not  of  as  good 
milling  quality,  as  the  same  variety  is  when  grown 
farther  south.  Another  valuable  feature  of  Bar- 
letta wheat  is  its  ability  to  stand  long  after  it  is 
ripe  without  shelling  out.  Since  labor  is  often 
scarce  in  Argentina  and  the  harvest  is  necessarily 
prolonged,  a  wheat  that  can  stand  delay  is  in 
demand.  Barletta  also  resists  climatic  hardships 
such  as  frost,  drought,  and  heat,  and  is  less  likely 
to  be  damaged  by  rusts  than  are  some  other  va- 
rieties. Russian  wheat  has  also  proved  successful, 
especially  in  the  south,  although  since  its  resist- 
ance to  shelling  is  not  strong,  it  must  be  harvested 
promptly  when  it  is  ripe. 

The  Semi-Hard  Wheat.  -  -  The  semi-hard  wheat 
district  lies  to  the  south,  at  this  time  from  latitude 
38°  to  42°  south.  This  area,  which  was  formerly 
not  thought  to  be  wheat  country,  has  been  proved 
by  recent  results  to  be  well  adapted  to  this  crop, 
and  so  the  boundaries  of  the  region  are  now  being 
pushed  still  farther  southward.  The  climate  cor- 
responds to  that  of  the  hard  winter  wheat  section 


222  THE  WHEAT  INDUSTRY 

of  the  United  States.  The  rainfall  is  low,  varying 
from  10  to  20  inches  per  annum.  In  some  cases 
irrigation  is  practiced  and  dry  farming  methods 
are  also  employed.  The  largest  yields  in  any  part 
of  Argentina  have  been  reported  from  the  territory 
of  Chubut,  700  miles  south  of  Buenos  Aires.  The 
wheats  grown  there  are  of  the  same  varieties  as 
those  grown  farther  north,  but  because  of  the 
coolness  of  the  climate  and  the  moderate  rainfall, 
the  yields  are  higher  and  the  qualities  are  better. 
It  is  also  true  that  the  farther  from  the  equator 
wheat  is  grown  the  more  quickly  does  it  mature. 
This  is  due  to  the  fact  that  it  has  longer  intervals 
of  sunlight  just  when  light  has  the  most  effective 
influence.  Barletta  wheat  grown  in  Chubut  some- 
times weighs  sixty-six  pounds  to  the  bushel.  The 
development  of  this  area  has  been  slow.  This  is 
because  there  is  a  large  area  to  the  north  which  has 
seemed  more  attractive  because  of  being  nearer 
the  export  centers  and  well  served  by  railroads. 

The  Methods  of  Cultivation.  —  Plowing. --The 
plowing  is  done  with  riding  and  walking  plows 
which  are  very  similar  to  those  used  in  the  United 
States.  In  much  of  the  country  single  walking 
plows  drawn  by  oxen  are  used.  Usually  from  two 
to  two  and  one  half  acres  are  plowed  per  day. 
The  work  is  done  in  this  leisurely  way  because  the 
land  can  be  plowed  at  almost  any  time  during  the 
year.  Experience  has  shown  that,  after  the  first 


WHEAT  IN  ARGENTINA  223 

one  or  two  years,  the  land  should  be  plowed  twice 
for  each  crop  in  order  to  get  the  best  results.  The 
first  plowing  should  be  8  or  9  inches  deep  immedi- 
ately after  the  removal  of  the  previous  crop.  This 
would  be  from  February  to  April.  The  second 
plowing  should  be  shallow,  3  or  4  inches,  and 
should  be  done  just  before  sowing,  which  would 
be  from  May  to  August. 

While  the  foregoing  method  is  the  one  that 
should  be  used,  more  than  one  half  the  wheat  is 
planted  on  land  that  has  been  plowed  but  once 
just  before  planting.  The  plowing  is  usually  from 
3  to  4  inches  deep  and  is  also  badly  done.  The 
furrows  are  crooked,  are  of  uneven  depth  and 
width,  and  look  as  if  they  had  been  made  with  a 
primitive  wooden  plow.  The  field  looks  as  though 
an  ordinary  corn  cultivator  had  been  run  through 
it  rather  than  that  it  had  been  plowed  for  planting. 
Deep  plowing  has  been  followed  in  Chubut  by  a 
colony  of  Welsh  farmers,  and  the  largest  yields  of 
the  best  wheat  have  there  been  secured. 

Methods  of  Seeding.  —  Most  of  the  seeding  is 
done  by  broadcast  seeders  or  by  hand.  The  seed 
is  covered  by  harrowing,  and  often  the  work  is 
poorly  done.  Only  about  one  eighth  of  the  sow- 
ing is  done  by  drills.  The  amount  of  seed  wheat 
used  per  acre  varies  from  three  fourths  of  a  bushel 
to  one  and  one  half  bushels.  The  time  of  seeding 
varies  with  the  latitude  of  the  region.  It  begins 


224 


THE  WHEAT  INDUSTRY 


north  of  Buenos  Aires,  about  May  15,  and  it  ends 
in  Chubut  in  August. 

Harvesting  the  Wheat.  —  Harvesting  begins  about 
the  middle  of  November  in  the  north  and  progresses 
southward,  so  that  the  wheat  is  all  harvested  by 
about  January  15.  Ordinarily  80  per  cent  of 
the  crop  is  harvested  in  December.  Most  of  the 


FIG.  96.  —  Threshing  wheat  on  a  large  wheat  farm  in  Argentina. 

wheat  is  cut  with  binders,  is  shocked,  and  stacked 
much  as  it  is  done  in  the  United  States.  The 
stacks  are  often  poorly  built  and  thus  permit  rain 
to  soak  in  and  damage  the  grain.  Headers  are 
extensively  used  for  cutting  the  wheat  in  the 
northern  section. 

Threshing  the   Grain.  -  -  Threshing  begins   soon 
after   the   stacking   and    continues   until    March. 


WHEAT  IN  ARGENTINA 


225 


Steam  power  threshing  outfits,  imported  both 
from  the  United  States  and  Great  Britain,  are 
used.  It  is  conceded  that  threshers  manufactured 
in  the  United  States  do  the  best  work,  but  the  ob- 
jection is  made  that  they  require  skilled  mechan- 
ics to  operate  them.  Hence  the  British  machines, 
being  much  simpler  though  less  efficient  and 


FIG.  97.  —  Wheat  awaiting  shipment,  Argentina. 

costlier,  are  preferred.  The  farmers  of  Argentina 
are  largely  south  Europeans  and  many  of  them  do 
not  have  the  ability  to  handle  machinery  that 
characterizes  the  north  Europeans,  who  constitute 
the  wheat  farming  class  of  the  United  States. 

The  cost  of  harvesting  wheat  is  from  9  to  n 
cents  per  bushel.  This  does  not  include  the 
expense  of  sacks,  which  is  quite  an  item,  since  the 

Q 


226  THE  WHEAT  INDUSTRY 

grain  is  all  sacked  and  hauled  directly  from  field 
to  market.  Because  of  this  method  there  is  like- 
wise no  farm  storage  in  granaries. 

The  chief  difficulty  with  the  harvest  in  Argen- 
tina is  the  lack  of  sufficient  help.  Fields  are  large, 
labor  scarce,  and  wages  high.  The  farmer  who  has 
planted  more  than  he  and  his  family  can  care  for 
finds  it  a  difficult  task  to  save  his  crop. 

The  Production  of  Wheat  in  Argentina.  — 
Wheat  production  in  Argentina  has  shown  a 
general  steady  increase  since  1870.  In  1912  the 
total  crop  amounted  to  198,000,000  bushels.1  The 
yield  varies  from  10  to  38  bushels  per  acre,  the  low 
yields  generally  occurring  in  the  northern  districts, 
the  high  yields  in  the  southern.  The  cost  of 
production  has  been  estimated  to  be  from  $7  to 
$10  per  acre,  which  would  make  50  to  60  cents  per 
bushel.  It  is  interesting  to  make  comparisons 
with  our  own  states  or  localities  in  the  matter  of 
yield  and  cost  of  production. 

The  Exportation  of  Wheat.  —  Exports,  which 
began  in  a  small  way  in  1878,  have  increased 
steadily  and  so  rapidly  that  Argentina  now  ranks 
as  one  of  the  greatest  wheat-exporting  countries 
in  the  world.  She  is  favored  by  having  vast 
areas  of  easily  tillable  and  highly  productive  land 
which  is  suitable  for  wheat.  Her  position  on  the 
Atlantic  seaboard  gives  her  easy  access  by  water 

l"  Argentine  Republic,"  Pan-American  Union,  August,  1913. 


WHEAT  IN  ARGENTINA 


227 


route  to  the  great  European  market  centers, 
Bordeaux,  Havre,  Liverpool,  and  Hamburg. 
Much  wheat  is  also  sold  to  Brazil  through  the 
ports  of  Bahia  and  Pernambuco. 

Absence  of  navigable   streams   extending   into 
the  interior,  however,  necessitates  extensive  rail- 


FIG.  98.  —  Docks  and  elevators,  Buenos  Aires.     Export  facilities  are  excellent. 

way  systems.  While  improvement  along  this  line 
has  been  rapid,  much  of  the  country  still  feels  the 
need  of  railroad  development.  Along  such  rail- 
roads as  exist,  shipping  facilities  are  poor,  ware- 
houses are  few,  and  as  a  result  much  wheat  await- 
ing shipment  is  stored  in  piles  along  the  tracks. 
The  government  is  now  attempting  to  remedy  this 


228  THE  WHEAT  INDUSTRY 

condition  by  compelling  the  railroads  to  build 
suitable  warehouses.  This  does  not  entirely 
remedy  matters,  for  even  where  warehouses  are 
built,  they  are  often  not  used  because  the  Italian 
farmers  refuse  to  pay  the  storage  charges.  Ter- 
minal facilities  are  good.  Large  wheat  elevators 
of  the  most  modern  type  have  recently  been  built 
at  Buenos  Aires. 

Considerable  milling  is  done  in  the  larger  cities 
and  some  flour  is  exported.  On  the  whole,  how- 
ever, it  is  not  the  flour,  but  the  wheat  from  Argen- 
tina, that  enters  into  the  commerce  of  the  world. 
Its  quantity,  96,000,000  bushels  exported  in  1912, 
makes  it  a  strong  factor  in  determining  market  prices. 

The  Development  of  the  Wheat  Industry  in 
Argentina.  —  Argentina  needs  capable  agricultur- 
alists with  some  capital  who  will  improve  farming 
conditions.  Half  of  the  farmers  now  raising  wheat 
there  have  no  intelligent  idea  of  how  it  should  be 
done.  The  government  is  taking  steps  to  assist  in 
the  improvement  of  agricultural  conditions  by 
organizing  schools  and  establishing  experiment 
stations.  It  is  now  generally  agreed  that  Argen- 
tina has  a  promising  future,  though  it  will  come 
through  a  slow  laborious  evolution  rather  than  by 
a  sudden  development.  This  condition  could  not 
be  otherwise  because  of  the  character  of  the 
population  out  of  which  agricultural  progress 
must  be  worked. 


WHEAT  IN  ARGENTINA  229 

QUESTIONS  AND  EXERCISES 

1.  Contrast  the  location  of  Argentina  with  that  of  the 
United  States. 

2.  In   what   part  of  Argentina   is  the   region   of  most 
successful  wheat  production  ? 

3.  Briefly   describe   the   climatic    advantages    and    dis- 
advantages of  Argentina. 

4.  In  what  parts  of  Argentina  is  Durum  wheat  most 
extensively  grown  ?     Why  ? 

5.  What  qualities  serve  to  make  Barletta  wheat  very 
popular  in  Argentina  ? 

6.  What  is  the  leading  wheat  harvest  month  of  Argen- 
tina ?     State  why  the  harvest  season  occurs  then. 

7.  How  does  the  type  of  farming  population  affect  the 
threshing  methods  ? 

8.  When  did  Argentina  become  inportant  as  an  exporter 
of  wheat  ? 

9.  What  countries   serve  as  the  principal  markets  for 
Argentine  wheat  ? 

10.  What  is  the  attitude  of  the  government  of  Argentina 
towards  agriculture?  What  effect  will  this  have  on  the 
future  wheat  production  f 


CHAPTER   XIV 
WHEAT  IN    THE    UNITED   STATES 

AMONG  all  the  countries  of  the  world,  the  term 
"first  in  wheat  "  is  one  which  may  be  correctly 
applied  to  the  United  States.  While  Russia 
sometimes  excels  her  in  amount  produced,  this 
country  can  still  claim  first  honors  because  of 
steady  production  and  high  quality,  and  because 
wheat  is  the  principal  breadstuff  for  all  the  Amer- 
ican people.  Although  its  relative  importance 
varies  widely  in  different  sections  of  the  country, 
wheat  is  raised  in  almost  every  state  in  the  Union. 
Since  conditions  are  so  diverse,  it  is  first  necessary, 
in  order  that  the  wheat  situation  may  be  viewed 
fairly,  to  study  the  different  wheat  regions  sep- 
arately. The  dividing  of  the  country  into  these 
regions  also  becomes  a  problem,  since  any  basis  of 
classification  must  include  soil,  topography,  cli- 
mate, and  the  kinds  of  wheat  produced.  Further- 
more, because  of  the  variation  in  all  these  factors 
there  is  likely  to  be  difference  of  opinion  concern- 
ing where  to  draw  the  division  lines.  The  follow- 
ing regions,  however,  may  be  suggested  :  north- 

230 


WHEAT  IN  THE  UNITED  STATES      231 


s      (A 


23 2  THE  WHEAT  INDUSTRY 

east,  southeast,  northeast  central  plains,  northwest 
central  plains,  southwest  central  plains,  western 
valleys  and  plains. 

Wheat  Production  in  the  Northeast  Region 
of  the  United  States.  -  -  This  region  includes  the 
New  England  and  the  Middle  Atlantic  states. 
Only  spring  wheat  is  raised  in  the  former.  In 
general  it  may  be  said  that  neither  New  England 
soil  nor  climate  is  very  favorable  to  wheat  pro- 
duction. The  summers  are  short,  moist,  and 
cool ;  the  winters,  long  and  severe.  The  balance 
of  the  region,  however,  is  important  as  a  winter 
wheat  producer,  this  being  especially  true  of  New 
York,  Pennsylvania,  and  Maryland.  There  the 
soil  is  generally  more  favorable,  the  summers 
warmer  and  longer,  and  the  winters  less  severe. 

The  rainfall  of  the  region  is  high,  from  40  to  50 
inches  annually,  and  is  fairly  well  distributed. 
The  percentage  of  sunshiny  days  is  here  not  so 
high  as  it  is  in  the  interior  states,  and  the  harvest 
season  not  so  free  from  rain.  Largely  because  of 
these  climatic  conditions,  soft  wheats  are  grown. 

Methods  of  Cultivation.  -  -  Throughout  much  of 
the  region  the  land  is  hilly,  and  the  fields  are  small. 
This  condition  accounts  for  the  fact  that  much  of 
the  plowing  is  done  with  walking  plows,  pulled  by 
two  or  three  horses.  The  autumn  is  the  plowing 
season.  For  winter  wheat,  the  ground  is  harrowed 
soon  after  plowing,  but  for  spring  wheat  that 


WHEAT  IN  THE  UNITED  STATES      233 


234 


THE  WHEAT  INDUSTRY 


operation  is  deferred  until  just  before  the  spring 
sowing.  The  sowing,  where  land  is  rough,  is  done 
by  hand.  Under  other  conditions  small  drills  are 
used.  Because  of  the  late  autumns,  winter  wheat 
is  sown  in  September,  or  even  as  late  as  October. 


FIG.  101. — A  wheat  field  in  New  York.  Note  that  only  two  horses  are 
used  to  pull  the  binder.  In  general,  small  sized  machinery  is  used  where 
fields  are  not  large. 

Spring  wheat  is  sown  as  soon  as  the  frost  leaves 
the  ground,  usually  in  March  or  early  April. 

Harvesting  the  Wheat  Crop.  -  -  The  harvesting  of 
winter  wheat  begins  early  in  July  ;  of  spring  wheat, 
about  a  month  later.  Self-binders  are  generally 
used,  those  with  the  six-foot  cut  being  the  most 
common.  In  some  of  the  very  hilly  sections,  where 
steep  slopes  prevent  the  use  of  reapers  and  binders, 


WHEAT  IN  THE  UNITED  STATES     235 


236  THE  WHEAT  INDUSTRY 

the  cradle  is,  however,  still  the  prevalent  harvest- 
ing machine.  Where  these  conditions  prevail  the 
fields  are  small  and  the  wheat  produced  forms  but 
a  small  part  of  the  total  production. 

The  threshing  is  usually  done  with  small  ma- 
chines operated  by  six  to  twelve  horse  power 
engines  and,  since  much  of  the  grain  is  stacked, 
it  usually  continues  until  late  in  the  autumn. 

The  Wheat  Supply  and  Demand  in  This  Region. — 
In  the  geography  of  wheat,  this  region,  which 
embraces  the  most  densely  populated  part  of  the 
United  States,  is  more  important  as  a  consumer 
than  as  a  producer.  Its  production  is  only  about 
5 \  per  cent  of  the  total  for  the  United  States .  Thus 
with  its  dense  population  this  region  in  wheat 
production  falls  far  below  the  amount  adequate 
for  its  needs.  This  condition  exists  in  spite  of 
the  fact  that  we  here  find  intelligent,  intensive 
farming,  the  extensive  use  of  fertilizers,  and  a  very 
high  average  yield  per  acre.  Maine  in  1913  re- 
ported an  average  yield  of  spring  wheat  of  25.5 
bushels  per  acre,  and  the  winter  wheat  in  Pennsyl- 
vania for  the  same  year  averaged  17  bushels  per 
acre. 

Very  little  of  this  wheat  is  exported.  It  is 
mixed  with  western  wheat  and  used  for  milling 
purposes.  Prices  received  for  it  are  higher  than 
those  received  for  wheat  in  the  western  regions. 
The  farm  price  per  bushel  in  New  York  state  is 


WHEAT  IN  THE  UNITED  STATES     237 

generally  from  20  to  25  per  cent  higher  than  in 
Nebraska  or  Kansas.  This  difference  in  price  is 
not  due  to  a  difference  in  quality,  but  to  the  facts 
that  markets  are  nearer  and  that  there  is  a  shortage 
in  local  supply,  and  it  must  be  borne  in  mind  that 
the  cost  of  production  is  also  higher  in  this  region. 
This  higher  production  cost  is  caused  by  the  care- 
ful methods  of  tillage  and  use  of  commercial  ferti- 
lizers. 

The  Southeast  Wheat  Region  of  the  United 
States.  —  All  the  states  south  of  the  Potomac  and 
Ohio  and  east  of  the  Mississippi  are  grouped  to- 
gether in  this  region.  Notwithstanding  the  fact 
that  there  are  within  this  region  strong  differences 
in  soil  and  topography,  there  is  a  general  similarity 
in  climate  and  in  the  kinds  of  wheat  raised.  Win- 
ters are  mild,  and  summers  are  not  excessively 
hot.  The  rainfall  is  heavy,  averaging  from  40 
to  60  inches  per  year,  and  the  humidity  is  high. 

The  soils  vary  from  sandy  to  very  heavy  clay, 
and  they  are  generally  lacking  in  some  of  the 
constituents  necessary  for  wheat.  Commercial 
fertilizers  are  therefore  used  in  every  state.  In 
some  places  they  are  used  in  large  quantities.  The 
cost  of  these  commercial  fertilizers  averages  from 
one  to  three  dollars  per  acre. 

The  Methods  of  Cultivation.  -  -  Winter  wheats 
are  grown  exclusively,  and  of  these  all  the  varieties 
raised  are  either  of  the  soft  or  semi-hard  types. 


238  THE  WHEAT  INDUSTRY 

The  fields  here  are  generally  larger  than  those  of 
the  northeastern  region,  but  are  small  com- 
pared with  those  of  the  West.  Ten  to  forty  acre 
fields  are  common.  In  the  preparation  of  the 
soil  both  walking  and  riding  plows  are  used. 
Among  the  latter  type  there  is  practically  no  usage 


FIG.  103.  —  A  typical  wheat  scene  in  the  Shenandoa 

of  the  gang  plow.  The  harrows  vary  from  small 
one-horse  affairs  to  the  eighteen-foot  size  which 
are  drawn  by  three  to  five  horses.  The  small 
sizes  are  the  more  common.  Sowing,  which  takes 
place  between  late  September  and  early  November, 
is  done  by  broadcast  seeder  or  drill. 

Harvesting  the  Wheat  Crop.  --June  is  the  harvest 
month  for  the  wheat  of  this   region.     The   self- 


WHEAT  IN  THE  UNITED  STATES      239 

binder  is  the  most  generally  used  machine,  although 
in  the  hilly  sections  places  are  found  where  the 
wheat  is  cut  by  reaper,  mower,  or  even  by  cradle. 
Small  threshing  machines  are  the  rule,  and  the 
threshing  takes  place  both  out  of  shock  and  stack. 
The  latter  is  probably  the  more  common  method. 


[alley,  Virginia.     Blue  Ridge  in  the  background. 

The  Wheat  Supply  and  Demand  in  This  Region. 
-This  region  ranks  low  in  production,  only  5.7  per 
cent  of  the  1913  crop  in  the  United  States  being 
credited  to  the  ten  states.  Virginia,  Kentucky, 
and  Tennessee  rank  highest,  Florida  and 
Mississippi  lowest.  Here,  as  in  the  northeast, 
the  yields  are  not  high,  ten  to  fourteen  bushels 
per  acre  being  the  average,  and  not  enough  wheat 


240 


THE  WHEAT  INDUSTRY 


is  raised  to  supply  the  local  needs.  This  is  in  part 
due  to  adverse  soil  and  climatic  conditions.  The 
yield,  however,  could  undoubtedly  be  increased 
were  more  improved  methods  of  farming  employed. 
Most  of  the  wheat  is  cared  for  by  the  local  markets, 
and  the  greater  part  of  it  is  milled  near  the  place 
of  production.  Market  conditions  are  good.  The 


Courtesy  Norfolk  and  Western  Railway. 
FIG.  104.  —  Harvest  scene  in  the  Great  Valley  of  southern  Virginia,  near  Roanoke. 

price  of  wheat  is  higher  in  this  section  than  any- 
where else  in  the  United  States.  The  price  per 
bushel  received  by  the  farmers  is  from  25  to  50  per 
cent  higher  than  that  received  by  the  wheat 
farmers  of  Kansas  and  Montana,  and  is  generally 
considerably  above  the  prices  paid  even  in  the 
northeastern  states.  In  1913  the  wheat  farmer  of 


WHEAT  IN  THE  UNITED  STATES     241 

North  Carolina  received  13  cents  per  bushel  more  for 
his  product  than  did  the  farmers  in  New  York. 
The  explanation  for  this  price  condition  is  that 
this  is  an  importing  region,  and  is  not  favorably 
located  to  receive  the  wheat  sent  out  by  the 
wheat  regions  of  the  West.  The  facts  that  the 
local  demand  exceeds  the  supply  and  that  location 
conditions  make  wheat  importation  costly  neces- 
sarily result  in  high  prices.  One  of  the  importation 
difficulties  becomes  apparent  when  we  realize  that 
the  great  export  routes  of  the  interior  pass  north  of 
this  section  and  directly  through  the  northeastern 
states.  Importation  in  that  section  is  thus  rendered 
easy  and  consequently  lower  prices  result. 

The  high  wheat  prices,  however,  of  the  Southeast 
are  serving  to  increase  the  amount  of  production. 
The  region  has  many  advantages  and  its  difficulties 
can  be  largely  overcome.  The  future  will  prob- 
ably see  a  moderate  increase  in  its  importance  as  a 
wheat  producer. 

The  Northeast  Central  Plains  Wheat  Region.  - 
This  region  comprises  the  states  north  of  the  Ohio 
and  east  of  the  Mississippi  rivers.  Considering 
the  extent  of  the  area,  its  unity  as  a  wheat-pro- 
ducing region  is  marked.  The  soil  is  nearly  all 
of  glacial  origin  and  varies  from  light  sandy  to 
heavy  clay.  The  greater  part  of  it  is  a  sandy  loam 
free  from  bowlders.  Since  the  fertility  is  high, 
commercial  fertilizers  are  not  used  to  any  great 


242  THE  WHEAT  INDUSTRY 

extent  except  in  the  older  settled  parts  of  Ohio 
and  Indiana.  The  topography  is  gently  rolling, 
and  most  of  the  land  is  well  drained.  The  rain- 
fall varies  from  30  to  40  inches  and  is  in  ample 
quantity  during  the  growing  season.  The  sum- 
mers are  warm ;  the  winters,  moderately  severe. 
The  growing  season  likewise  is  long  enough  for 
any  of  the  common  wheat  varieties. 


FIG.    105.  —  Extensive  wheat  fields  on   the  gently   rolling   glacial    drift  plains. 
Typical  of  Iowa,  northern  Missouri,  and  eastern  Nebraska. 

The  Methods  of  Cultivation.  —  Semi-hard  winter 
wheat  is  the  type  most  generally  raised  throughout 
the  whole  region,  though  in  places  there  is  some 
spring  wheat  grown.  In  Wisconsin,  winter  and 
spring  wheat  are  raised  in  about  equal  amounts. 

The  Northeast  Central  Plains  region  is  one  of 
diversified  agriculture  and  the  farms  are  much 


WHEAT  IN  THE  UNITED  STATES      243 

larger  than  are  the  fields  which  are  given  to  any 
particular  kind  of  crop.  Fields  are  generally  of 
moderate  size.  The  area  of  the  common  wheat 
field  is  usually  not  more  than  from  40  to  80  acres. 
Such  plows  and  harrows  are  purchased  as  may  also 
be  used  to  advantage  in  producing  other  small 
grains  and  corn. 


FIG.  106.  —  Plowing  for  wheat  on  the  loess  plains  of  Nebraska. 

Plowing,  if  for  spring  wheat,  is  done  late  in  the 
autumn  or  early  in  the  spring  ;  if  for  winter  wheat, 
the  favored  season  is  early,  even  as  early  as  July. 
The  two-bottom  gang  or  the  single-bottom  sulky 
is  the  type  of  plow  used.  The  former  is  becoming 
very  widely  used  because  it  is  a  size  well  adapted 
to  the  fields  of  this  region. 

The   ground    is    harrowed    immediately   before 


244  THE  WHEAT  INDUSTRY 

sowing.  This  is  usually  done  by  means  of  three- 
section  steel  harrows  which  cover  a  width  of 
from  fifteen  to  eighteen  feet. 

The  winter  wheat  is  usually  sown  in  September 
or  October ;  the  spring  wheat  as  early  as  possible, 
March  being  the  favorite  month.  Sowing  is 
generally  accomplished  by  means  of  an  eight  to 
twelve  hole  press  drill,  although  in  heavy  soils 
broadcast  seeding  is  often  practiced.  In  either 
case  from  a  bushel  to  a  bushel  and  a  half  is  the 
amount  of  seed  wheat  sown  per  acre. 

Harvesting  the  Wheat  Crop.  -  -  The  principal  har- 
vest month  is  July.  In  the  southern  part  of  the 
region,  however,  the  winter  wheat  is  often  ready 
for  harvest  during  the  latter  part  of  June.  Al- 
most all  the  wheat  is  cut  by  self-binders  and  is 
then  shocked  and  left  to  dry  in  the  field  so  as  to 
be  ready  for  stacking  or  threshing.  The  straw  is 
generally  so  heavy  that  from  two  to  three  pounds 
of  twine  per  acre  must  be  used  for  binding  the 
bundles.  Since  there  is  danger  of  rain  during  the 
harvest  season,  the  grain  is  either  stacked  or 
threshed  as  soon  as  it  is  dry.  Some  few  thresh 
directly  from  the  shock,  but  inasmuch  as  there  is 
usually  a  delay  in  getting  a  machine,  many  stack 
their  grain  rather  than  run  the  risk  of  rain  while 
it  waits  in  the  shock. 

Moderate-sized  threshers  are  used.  The  ordi- 
nary capacity  of  an  outfit  is  from  1000  to  1500 


WHEAT  IN  THE  UNITED   STATES      245 

bushels  per  day.  While  larger-sized  machinery  is 
used  than  in  the  East,  yet  it  is  not  as  large  as  that 
used  in  the  West. 

The  Wheat  Supply  and  Demand  in  This  Region. — 
Ordinarily  the  Northeast  Central  Plains  region 
produces  about  18  per  cent  of  the  total  wheat 
crop  of  the  United  States.  Illinois,  Indiana,  and 
Ohio  are  large  producers.  In  Wisconsin,  however, 
wheat  has  declined  greatly  in  importance.  The 
yield  in  good  years  for  the  region  averages  from  1 5 
to  1 8  bushels  per  acre,  the  five  states  having  nearly 
the  same  average  yield. 

This  section  is  situated  very  favorably  with 
respect  to  market  conditions.  The  country  is 
well  settled  and  the  roads  are  generally  good. 
Many  of  the  main  traveled  roads  have  been 
macadamized.  A  network  of  railways  also  places 
local  shipping  facilities  within  easy  reach  of  prac- 
tically all  parts.  This  region  includes  many 
great  centers  of  population,  —  Milwaukee,  Detroit, 
Cincinnati,  Chicago,  Cleveland,  Toledo,  Dayton, 
Indianapolis,  and  Columbus,  which  furnish  good 
home  markets.  Not  only  is  this  region  crossed  by 
the  great  railroad  trunk  lines  which  lead  to  the  At- 
lantic coast,  but  it  has  also  the  benefit  of  the  Great 
Lakes  waterway.  Thus  it  has  export  facilities 
which  are  not  excelled  by  any  inland  region  of  like 
size  in  the  world.  The  importance  of  all  these 
factors  is  shown  by  the  fact  that  the  farm  price 


246  THE  WHEAT  INDUSTRY 

of  wheat  in  these  states  is  from  10  to  18  per  cent 
higher  than  in  the  states  which  are  west  of  the 
Missouri  River.  The  value  of  a  marketing  advan- 
tage to  an  exporting  region  is  here  well  illustrated. 

Because  of  keener  demands  for  some  of  her  other 
products,  this  region  has  not  in  recent  years  been  in- 
creasing in  wheat  production.  The  new,  cheap  lands 
of  the  West  have  increased  the  supply  of  wheat,  and 
other  products  have  here  become  more  profitable. 
Since  population  is  increasing  rapidly  and  the  new 
lands  in  the  United  States  available  for  wheat  are 
now  largely  under  cultivation,  this  condition  cannot 
be  permanent.  Further  development  will  center 
about  a  higher  yield  per  acre  rather  than  more 
acres,  and  in  such  a  development  this  region  gives 
promise  of  playing  an  important  part. 

The  Southwest  Central  Plains  Wheat  Region.  — 
Among  the  states  west  of  the  Mississippi  River  and 
east  of  the  Rocky  Mountains  marked  differences  in 
conditions  are  found  from  North  Dakota  to  Texas. 
The  transition,  however,  is  a  gradual  one.  In 
general,  the  states  south  of  the  fortieth  parallel 
have  sufficient  similarity  to  be  grouped  into  one 
region.  Of  these  states,  the  greatest  wheat  pro- 
ducer is  Kansas,  which  is  followed  by  Missouri, 
Oklahoma,  Texas,  Colorado,  Arkansas,  and  New 
Mexico  in  the  order  named. 

The  climate  here  favors  the  production  of  winter 
wheat.  The  summers  are  hot.  Temperatures  in 


WHEAT  IN  THE  UNITED  STATES     247 

northern  Texas  and  Kansas  in  July  frequently 
exceed  100°  F.  Winters  are  fairly  severe  although 
usually  not  cold  enough  to  injure  the  wheat  plants. 
Although  the  summers  show  little  difference  in 
temperature,  the  annual  average  is  of  course 
higher  in  the  southern  than  in  northern  parts  of 
this  region.  Rainfall  varies  from  18  to  35  inches, 
with  a  general  decrease  from  the  eastern  to  the 
western  parts.  Since  certain  varieties  of  plants 
must  secure  moisture  at  certain  times,  the  distri- 
bution of  the  rainfall  is  an  important  factor.  The 
greater  part  of  it  here  is  favorable  to  wheat  since 
it  comes  during  the  early  spring.  There  is  usually 
also  a  sufficient  amount  of  moisture  from  Septem- 
ber to  November  to  give  the  wheat  its  autumn 
growth. 

The  soil  is  generally  very  fertile.  Dark,  sandy 
loams  prevail,  although  in  Texas  and  Oklahoma 
there  are  some  rather  extensive  areas  of  reddish 
soils.  Northeastern  Kansas  and  northern  Mis- 
souri have  soils  of  glacial  origin  which  are  fairly 
free  from  bowlders.  The  land  varies  from  gently 
rolling  to  broad,  smooth  plains. 

Methods  of  Cultivation.  —  Winter  wheat  is  raised 
amost  exclusively,  and  the  hard,  red  varieties  are 
held  in  highest  favor.  Turkey  Red  is  the  most 
common,  for  it  yields  well  and  produces  grain  of 
high  milling  quality.  Kansas,  Colorado,  and  New 
Mexico  produce  some  spring  wheat,  but  the  crop 


248  THE  WHEAT  INDUSTRY 

is  important  only  in  the  two  latter  states.  Durum 
wheat  is  grown  to  a  considerable  extent  in  the  drier 
sections  of  the  Southwest,  especially  in  western 
Texas. 

The  methods  of  wheat  production  in  the  eastern 
part  of  the  region  are  similar  to  those  of 
Illinois  and  Indiana.  Fields  are  generally  of 
moderate  size,  and  diversified  farming  is  the  rule. 

In  the  western  parts  of  Kansas,  Oklahoma,  and 
Texas  and  in  the  eastern  parts  of  Colorado  and 
New  Mexico,  wheat  is  the  principal  crop.  Fields 
are  large,  160  to  640  acres  being  common  sizes 
of  wheat  fields.  Riding  plows  are  in  most  general 
use.  The  sizes  vary  from  the  two  bottom  to  the 
eight  or  twelve  bottom  gang  plows  with  the  two 
or  three  bottom  gangs  most  common.  Early 
plowing  is  practiced,  and  in  the  drier  parts  the 
ground  is  harrowed  soon  after  plowing  in  order 
to  conserve  moisture.  Seeding,  by  means  of  ten 
to  sixteen  hole  press  drills,  is  done  usually  in 
October,  although  in  the  southern  part  of  the  area 
even  November  sowing  has  done  well. 

Harvesting  the  Crop.  —  Though  the  harvest  be- 
gins in  the  southern  part  of  the  region  late  in 
May,  June  is  the  chief  harvest  month.  The  wheat 
is  cut  with  the  self-binder  and  the  header.  The 
binder  is  used  almost  exclusively  in  the  eastern 
part.  Since  the  header  is  well  adapted  to  short 
straw  and  dry  harvest  conditions,  it  is  used 


WHEAT  IN  THE  UNITED  STATES      249 

extensively  in  the  drier  portions  of  the  west.  The 
bound  grain  is  shocked,  and  much  of  it  stacked 
before  threshing.  The  headed  grain  is,  of  course, 
handled  loose  and  most  of  it  is  also  stacked  as  soon 
as  cut.  Occasionally,  the  wheat  is  dry  enough  to 
be  threshed  at  once.  The  harvesting  machines  are 


Courtesy  Fort  Hayes  Branch,  Kansas  Agricultural  College. 
FIG.  107.  —  Harvesting  with  a  header  on  the  plains  of  Kansas. 

of  large  size  ;  the  binders  of  7  or  8  foot  cut  and  the 
headers  of  12  to  20  foot  cut. 

The  labor  problem  at  harvest  time  in  this  region 
is  often  a  serious  one.  The  acreage  is  so  great 
in  proportion  to  population  that  importation  of 
labor  is  necessary.  A  sufficient  number  of  men 
is  often  even  then  difficult  to  obtain.  This  is  the 
most  southerly  of  our  great  wheat  regions  and  its 
harvest  is  the  earliest,  so  here  is  the  first  assem- 
blage each  year  of  what  is  often  called  the  "  har- 
vest population/'  Wages  are  good.  The  ordinary 
prices  vary  from  two  to  four  dollars  a  day  with 
board  and  lodging  in  addition.  A  working  army, 
made  up  of  men  recruited  from  farms,  cities,  and 


25o  THE  WHEAT  INDUSTRY 

colleges,  is  here  first  set  in  motion  and  begins  its 
northward  march  which  terminates  in  Canada  in 
September.  Of  course  most  of  the  men  do  not 
follow  it  from  beginning  to  end.  Many  do,  how- 
ever, and  on  the  whole  a  harvest  situation  is  here 
presented  that  can  be  duplicated  in  no  other 
country.  At  the  end  of  the  season  the  men  scatter, 
but  the  next  summer  sees  the  same  progress  of 
events.  Although  the  new  harvest  population  in 
the  region  will  present  many  new  faces,  the  gen- 
eral effect  is  the  same  as  that  of  the  preceding 
year. 

Threshing  the  Grain.  --  Steam  threshing  outfits 
are  used  throughout  the  region.  Generally  they 
are  of  large  size,  and  have  a  daily,  capacity  of 
from  1500  to  3000  bushels.  Threshing  begins  in 
July  and  is  usually  completed  before  October, 
although  since  both  shock  and  stack  threshing  are 
practiced,  the  season  may  be  further  prolonged. 

The  Wheat  Supply  and  Demand  in  This  Region.  - 
The  importance  of  wheat  production  in  this  region 
is  shown  by  the  fact  that  it  furnishes  more  than 
one  fifth  of  the  wheat  crop  of  the  United  States. 
In  1913  it  produced  23.3  per  cent  of  the  total  crop. 
Because  of  somewhat  deficient  rainfall  and  the 
lack  of  intensive  farming  methods,  the  average 
yield  per  acre  is  low.  It  is  usually  from  10  to  15 
bushels,  although  some  sections  produce  more. 
This  is  particularly  true  of  the  irrigated  fields  of 


WHEAT  IN  THE  UNITED  STATES      251 

Texas,  Colorado,  and  New  Mexico,  where  yields  of 
30  to  45  bushels  per  acre  are  often  reported. 

Much  export  wheat  is  produced.  This  region  is 
favorably  situated  to  take  advantage  of  the 
Gulf  of  Mexico  route  to  European  markets  and 
thus  lessen  railway  transportation.  This  makes 
a  great  difference  in  freight  rates.  Galveston  and 
New  Orleans  are  the  principal  export  centers  for 
this  region.  (See  Chapter  VIII  for  comparative 
freight  rates  from  United  States  to  European 
markets.) 

Land  is  generally  low-priced  in  proportion  to  its 
producing  capacity.  This,  together  with  easy 
tillage,  has  made  the  cost  of  production  per  bushel 
relatively  low.  While  the  farm  prices  for  the 
wheat  are  not  so  great  as  they  are  to  the  east, 
there  is  generally  sufficient  margin  between  cost 
of  production  and  the  market  price  to  make  this 
a  very  prosperous  wheat  growing  region. 

The  Northwest  Central  Plains  Wheat  Region.  - 
The  area  between  the  Mississippi  River  and  the 
Rocky  Mountains  which  lies  north  of  the  fortieth 
parallel  is  included  under  the  above  head.     In  this 
region  wheat  is  an  important  crop  in  every  state. 

In  general  the  summers  are  hot,  and  the  winters 
are  quite  cold.  Because  of  the  cold,  open  winters 
which  prevail,  winter  wheat  can  be  grown  success- 
fully only  in  the  southern  and  western  parts  of 
the  area.  The  rainfall,  which  varies  from  15  to  35 


252 


THE  WHEAT  INDUSTRY 


inches,  comes  chiefly  during  the  growing  season 
and  is  sufficient  in  the  larger  part  of  the  region. 
In  the  western  part,  however,  the  rainfall  is  hardly 
adequate,  and  so  drought-resisting  varieties  of 
wheat  are  sought.  There  dry  farming  methods 


Photo  by  E.  L.  Currier. 
FIG.  108.  —  Wheat  grown  by  dry  farming  methods  on  the  plains  of  Montana. 

are  practiced  and  where  water  is  available  irriga- 
tion is  employed. 

The  topography  is  of  the  rolling  plains  type  with 
broad  stretches  of  smooth  land  cut  by  a  few  deep 
river  valleys  making  up  the  western  part.  The 
soil  on  the  whole  is  fertile  and  well  adapted  to 
wheat.  The  sand  hill  area  of  Nebraska  and  the 
Bad  Lands  of  South  Dakota  are  conspicuous  ex- 
ceptions. There  are  also  some  mountain  areas, 
such  as  the  Little  Laramie,  the  Black  Hills,  and 


WHEAT  IN  THE  UNITED  STATES     253 

the  Little  Missouri  Mountains  which  mark  dis- 
tricts not  suited  to  wheat.  The  greater  part  of 
the  western  portion  was  formerly  the  land  of  cattle 
ranges  and  much  of  it  is  still  so  used.  During 
recent  years,  however,  wheat  has  made  serious 
inroads  on  the  grass  land. 

The  Methods  of  Cultivation.  -  -  Both  spring  and 
winter  varieties  are  raised.  North  Dakota  and 
Minnesota  lead  in  spring  wheat  production  and 
Nebraska  leads  in  winter  wheat.  In  Iowa  and  in 
eastern  Nebraska,  corn  is  the  most  important 
farm  crop,  but  in  the  other  states  wheat  takes 
first  place. 

Since  methods  of  production  in  the  eastern  part 
of  the  region  are  about  the  same  as  for  the  North- 
east Central  states,  detailed  discussion  need  not 
be  given  here.  In  the  western  section,  however, 
the  work  is  for  the  most  part  done  on  a  large  scale. 
The  plowing  is  with  gang  plows  varying  in  size 
from  two  to  sixteen  bottoms.  The  larger  plows  are 
pulled  by  either  steam  or  gas  tractors  and  the 
smaller  ones  by  horses  or  mules.  Nearly  all  the 
plowing  is  done  in  the  autumn.  Ten  to  eighteen 
hole  press  drills  are  used  for  seeding,  and  about 
a  bushel  of  wheat  is  sown  per  acre.  Most  of  the 
winter  wheat  is  sown  in  September.  The  spring 
wheat  is  sown  late  in  March  or  in  April.  Where 
the  soil  is  quite  loose,  the  winter  wheat  land  is 
sometimes  rolled  in  the  spring  in  order  that  the 


254  THE  WHEAT  INDUSTRY 

soil,  which  has  become  much  loosened  by  the 
freezing  and  thawing  of  early  spring  and  winter, 
may  be  solidly  packed  together. 

Harvesting  the  Crop.  -  -  The  self-binder  is  the 
harvesting  machine  in  highest  favor.  Headers 
are  used  to  some  extent,  particularly,  as  often 
happens  in  dry  years,  when  the  wheat  is  very  short. 
July  and  August  are  the  harvest  months,  the  south- 
ern part  having,  of  course,  the  earlier  date.  Most 
of  the  wheat  is  shocked,  and  in  the  west  very  little 
of  it  is  stacked.  Threshing  is  out  of  shock,  and  is 
usually  done  as*  soon  as  the  wheat  is  dry  enough. 
Under  this  method,  everybody  wants  to  thresh  at 
about  the  same  time  and  consequently  many  large- 
sized  threshing  machines  are  owned  in  each  com- 
munity. Consequently  in  this  region  the  thresh- 
ing season  is  a  short  but  extremely  busy  one.  All 
the  machinery,  both  harvesting  and  threshing,  is  of 
large  size  and  great  capacity.  Thus,  as  a  result  of 
large  fields  and  a  scattered  population,  the  amount 
of  human  labor  necessary  to  produce  a  bushel  of 
wheat  is  reduced  to  the  minimum. 

Marketing  the  Crop.  -  -  The  Northwest  Central 
Plains  is  a  region  of  numerous  country  elevators. 
The  wheat  is  all  marketed  in  bulk.  Many  farms 
are  likewise  equipped  with  granaries  in  order  that 
the  farmer  may  hold  his  product  for  favorable 
market  conditions.  The  wheat  is  hauled  in  wagons 
of  50  or  60  bushels  capacity  either  direct  from 


WHEAT  IN  THE  UNITED  STATES      255 

thresher  or  from  the  granary  to  the  nearest  rail- 
road. One  driver,  by  driving  one  team  and  lead- 
ing the  other,  often  handles  two  loads.  Every 
town  has  one  or  more  elevators.  The  load  is 
driven  upon  a  hinged  platform,  the  rear  end  gate 
drawn,  the  wagon  tilted  downward  at  an  angle  of 
45°  and  the  wheat  dumped  into  a  pit,  from  whence 
it  is  elevated  and  discharged  into  railway  cars. 


FIG.  109.  —  Twenty  stacks  of  wheat  in  one  selling,  Nebraska  Loess  Plains. 

In  this  region  there  is  operated  a  complete  chain 
of  wheat-producing  conveniences.  It  will  be  ob- 
served that  the  ground  is  prepared,  the  seed 
planted,  the  harvest,  threshing,  and  marketing 
performed,  with  but  very  little  manual  labor  in- 
volved. Power  (either  horses,  steam,  or  gas) 
and  machinery,  under  the  direction  of  man,  do 
practically  all  the  work. 

The  yield  per  acre  is  from  ten  to  twenty-five 
bushels  and  the  total  production  is  about  38  per 


256  THE  WHEAT  INDUSTRY 

cent  of  the  entire  wheat  crop  of  the  United  States. 
Since  this  is  a  region  of  scattered  population  and 
heavy  production,  it  is  evident  that  it  contributes 
materially  to  the  export  trade. 

The  greater  part  of  the  wheat  is  sent  eastward, 
either  by  way  of  the  Great  Lakes  highway  or  by 
rail.  Transportation  facilities  are  very  good  ;  the 
greater  part  of  the  region  is  served  by  a  maze 
of  railroads.  Splendid  transcontinental  systems 
give  efficient  service  to  the  eastern  and  southern 
export  cities.  Milling  is  well  organized.  Up-to- 
date  flouring  mills  are  found  in  all  the  cities  and 
in  practically  all  of  the  moderate-sized  towns.  In 
addition  to  these  smaller  centers  there  is  the  great 
milling  center  at  Minneapolis.  The  principal 
market  centers  for  the  region  are  Minneapolis, 
Chicago,  Omaha,  Kansas  City,  and  St.  Louis. 

The  Western  Valleys  and  Plains  Wheat  Region. 
—  Wheat  is  raised  in  all  of  the  Western  states. 
Although  it  is  of  great  local  importance  in  the 
irrigated  valleys  of  Arizona  and  Utah,  its  areas  of 
great  commercial  importance  are  the  Sacramento 
valley  of  California  and  the  high  plains  of  eastern 
Oregon,  Washington,  and  western  Idaho.  These 
two  latter  areas  are  the  districts  which  contribute 
to  the  wheat  of  commerce. 

The  climate  varies  greatly.  In  California  the 
winters  are  very  mild,  and  in  eastern  Washington 
they  are  quite  severe.  The  average  annual  rain- 


WHEAT  IN  THE  UNITED  STATES      257 

fall  in  the  wheat-growing  section  is  from  ten  to 
forty  inches.  As  it  comes  mostly  in  the  winter 
season,  the  harvests  are  fairly  free  of  rain. 

The  topography  varies  from  the  broad  river 
valleys  of  California  to  some  very  broken  lands  in 
Washington.  Although  the  soil  is  rich  in  mineral 
constituents  in  some  places  it  is  somewhat  low  in 
humus. 

Methods  of  Cultivation.  -  -  Because  of  climatic 
and  soil  conditions  practically  only  soft,  white 
wheats  are  grown.  Winter  wheats  predominate 
in  California  and  Oregon,  and  spring  wheats  in 
Washington.  Club  wheats  are  the  most  common, 
and  are  in  favor  because  of  their  early  maturing 
and  non-shattering  characteristics. 

The  plowing  is  much  the  same  as  in  the  plains 
regions,  except  that,  in  California,  disc  plows 
pulled  by  steam  engines  are  used  to  a  considerable 
extent.  The  use  of  these  discs  is  not  so  common  as 
in  past  years,  since  many  of  the  large  farms  have 
been  subdivided  into  smaller  units.  Plowing  is 
done  during  the  autumn,  and  in  California,  when- 
ever weather  permits,  may  be  carried  late  into  the 
winter.  The  plowing  in  this  region  comes  in  the 
rainy  season.  In  some  parts  disc  harrows  and  even 
steel-tooth  harrows  are  used  for  preparation  of 
seed  bed  in  lieu  of  plowing.  This  of  course  is  a 
quicker  and  cheaper  method,  but  it  ordinarily 
results  in  lower  yields. 


THE  WHEAT  INDUSTRY 


WHEAT  IN  THE  UNITED  STATES      259 

The  time  of  sowing  is  from  September  to  April. 
The  latter  date  is  true  for  the  northern  part  of  the 
spring  wheat  district.  The  grain  is  sown  either 
by  broadcast  seeders  located  on  wagon  flats  or  by 
disc  drills.  Broadcast  sowing  is  more  rapid  than 
drilling,  but  it  does  not  result  in  an  even  covering 
of  the  grain. 

Harvesting  the  Crop.  — *•  Binders,  headers,  and 
combined  harvester-threshers  are  used  for  har- 
vesting the  wheat.  The  harvester-thresher,  known 
as  the  combine,  is  used  only  where  the  wheat 
farms  are  very  large.  Elsewhere  headers  and 
binders  predominate.  Since  m6st  of  the  farms  of 
the  Sacramento  valley  have  been  subdivided  into 
smaller  units  and  are  given  over  to  intensive, 
diversified  farming,  eastern  Oregon  is  now  the 
most  important  large-farm  wheat  district.  In  the 
smaller  farms  of  the  Sacramento  valley,  wheat  is 
coming  to  have  only  a  subordinate  place  among 
the  crops,  and  wheat  production  has  decreased 
since  1900  about  80  per  cent.  In  the  large-farm 
district  of  Oregon,  however,  the  average  field 
covers  from  640  to  1000  acres,  while  farms  ex- 
ceeding 5000  acres  are  not  uncommon.  In  some 
counties  more  than  half  the  farms  exceed  1000 
acres  in  size.  There  the  combines  are  used  almost 
exclusively,  and  the  common  self-binder  is  seldom 
seen.  Since  the  successful  use  of  the  combined 
harvester-thresher  depends  on  large-sized  farms 


260  THE  WHEAT  INDUSTRY 

and  a  rainless  harvest  season,  eastern  Oregon  and 
parts  of  Washington  and  California,  fulfilling  both 
conditions,  find  this  machine  the  practical  one. 

Threshing  in  all  cases  follows  directly  after  the 
harvest.  When  the  binder  is  used,  the  grain  is 
threshed  very  soon  after  it  is  cut.  When  the 
combine  is  used,  the  binding  and  threshing  are  of 
course  one  operation.  For  the  threshing  only 
large-sized  machinery  is  used.  The  wheat  must 
be  delivered  to  market  before  the  autumn  and 
winter  rains  begin,  but  since  the  dry  season  ex- 
tends late  into  the  fall,  ample  time  for  marketing 
is  available.  The  harvest  here  is  not  marked  by 
the  nervous  haste  which  prevails  throughout  the 
Central  states. 

The  Extent  of  Production.  —  The  yield  per  acre 
of  this  region  is  high,  averaging  from  14  to  28 
bushels.  This  high  general  average  is  partly  due 
to  the  immense  return  from  irrigated  valleys  in 
the  region  where  yields  often  run  40  or  more 
bushels  per  acre.  The  cost  of  production  of  non- 
irrigated  wheat  is  relatively  low.  It  is  estimated 
at  from  seven  to  ten  dollars  per  acre.  The  former 
figure  applies  to  places  where  the  ground  is  merely 
harrowed  instead  of  plowed  before  seeding.  About 
twelve  per  cent  of  the  crop  of  the  United  States  is 
raised  in  this  region. 

Marketing  the  Crop.  -  -  Wheat  here  is  handled 
almost  entirely  in  sacks.  There  are  no  elevators 


WHEAT  IN  THE  UNITED  STATES     261 

at  the  country  towns  ;  and  the  seaports,  Seattle, 
Vancouver,  and  Portland,  in  place  of  having  large 
terminal  elevators  such  as  are  seen  at  Chicago  or 
New  York,  have  erected  great  warehouses  in  their 
stead.  At  the  thresher  the  grain  is  put  into  sacks 
holding  about  two  bushels  and  is  then  hauled  to 


Courtesy  of  New  Chamber  of  Commerce,  Seattle. 
FIG.  in.  —  Along  the  water  front  at  Seattle. 

the  railway  station.  Farmers  are  not  equipped 
with  tight  wagons,  and  farm  storage  is  almost 
unknown.  Sometimes  the  sacked  grain  is  stacked 
in  piles  alongside  the  railroad  where  it  awaits 
shipment.  On  the  whole  this  method  of  handling 
wheat  is  more  expensive  than  the  handling  of  it  in 
bulk,  and  so  the  present  tendency  is  to  provide  for 
the  more  economical  method.  Since  this  change 


262  THE  WHEAT  INDUSTRY 

means  replacing  open  wagons  with  tight  ones, 
warehouses  with  elevators,  and  the  present  store- 
houses with  modern  terminal  shipping  facilities, 
it  must  of  necessity  come  slowly. 

Farm  prices  for  wheat  are  about  the  same  as  in 


FIG.   112. — A    large   grain   elevator  at   Girard   Point,   Philadelphia.     Capacity, 

1,000,000  bushels. 

Kansas  and  Nebraska.  Although  some  is  sold  to 
Asiatic  markets,  the  greater  part  of  the  export 
wheat  is  sent  by  all-water  route  to  Europe.  The 
Panama  Canal  will  greatly  lessen  the  distance  to 
Europe  and  will  probably  result  in  lower  freight 
rates.  This,  by  making  possible  somewhat  in- 


WHEAT  IN  THE  UNITED  STATES      263 

creased  prices  for  his  product,  will  be  of  decided 
advantage  to  the  producer.  Thus,  with  the  rapid 
growth  of  Pacific  coast  industries,  the  develop- 
ment of  Oriental  markets,  and  the  lowered  freight 
rates  to  Europe,  the  future  of  this  wheat  region 


Courtesy  oj  Pennsylvania  Railroad. 

Three  ocean  going  steamships  can  be  loaded  at  the  same  time  at  the  rate  of  60,000 
bushels  per  hour. 

seems  promising.  More  intensive  farming  methods 
will  also  gradually  win  favor  and  the  result  will 
be  that  general  production  and  prosperity  will 
become  even  greater  than  at  present. 

The  Exportation  of  Wheat  in  the  United  States. 
—  In  common  with  other  exporting  countries,  the 


264 


THE  WHEAT  INDUSTRY 


United  States  finds  her  greatest  wheat  market  in 
western  Europe.  The  price  of  wheat  to  the 
American  farmer  depends  very  largely  on  the 
demand  which  European  countries  make  upon  his 
product.  Thus  large  crops  in  other  exporting 
countries,  such  as  Australia,  Argentina,  Canada, 


Courtesy  of  New  Chamber  of  Commerce,  Seattle. 

FIG.  113.  —  Elevators  are  being  built  along  the  waterfront  at  Seattle.  The 
one  in  process  of  construction  at  right  of  picture  will  have  storage  capacity  of  five 
hundred  thousand  bushels. 

India,  and  Russia,  cause  a  lessened  demand  for  our 
wheat  and  lower  prices  result.  The  price  likewise 
depends  to  a  large  extent  on  the  crops  in  the  chief 
importing  countries  :  Italy,  Germany,  France,  and 
Great  Britain.  Bounteous  crops  in  these  countries 
render  large  imports  unnecessary  and  lower  prices 
naturally  follow.  In  a  similar  way  the  greater 


WHEAT  IN  THE  UNITED  STATES      265 

imports  needed  when  their  home  production  is  low 
causes  high  prices.  So  dependent  on  imports  are 
the  European  countries  that  even  threatened 
shortage  in  home  production  causes  sharp  ad-  • 
vances  of  the  wheat  market.  As  an  illustration 
of  this  the  lessened  production  anticipated  in  these 
countries  as  a  result  of  the  European  War  caused 
in  1914  the  price  of  wheat  in  the  United  States  to 
rise  from  25  to  40  per  cent,  although  this  was  a 
year  of  an  exceptionally  large  world  crop.  How- 
ever, since  prices  rose  as  soon  as  war  became  im- 
minent, part  of  this  rise  was  undoubtedly  due  to 
speculation.  Prices  remained  high  because  of  the 
increased  demand  for  wheat.  This  demand  was 
at  first  based  on  prospective  future  needs  rather 
than  on  needs  actually  existing. 

The  armies  of  Europe,  from  the  Napoleonic 
wars  of  the  early  nineteenth  century  to  the  present 
time,  have  largely  depended  on  foreign  wheat  for 
their  breadstuffs.  The  United  States  now,  as 
before,  is  an  important  contributor  to  their 
supply. 

The  wheat  exports  of  the  United  States  are 
both  the  grain  and  flour.  This  is  the  only  great 
wheat-exporting  country  which  contributes  nearly 
as  much  wheat  flour  as  wheat  grain  to  foreign 
commerce. 

The  United  States  has,  however,  passed  the 
period  of  its  development  in  which  it  ranked  fore- 


266  THE  WHEAT  INDUSTRY 

most  as  the  source  of  wheat  supply  for  foreign 
nations.  The  total  production,  though  steadily 
advancing,  has  not  kept  pace  with  the  consump- 
tion. In  1900  this  country  far  outranked  every 
other  in  the  amount  of  its  wheat  exports.  That 
year  she  sent  approximately  216,000,000  bushels 
to  foreign  markets,  a  quantity  three  times  that  of 
the  wheat  exports  of  either  Argentina  or  Russia 
in  the  same  year.  Since  that  time  the  wheat 
exports  of  the  United  States  have  decreased  ap- 
proximately fifty  per  cent.  This  is  in  spite  of  a 
slightly  increased  total  production.  The  cause 
of  this  decrease  in  exports  lies  in  the  tremendous 
growth  in  city  population  during  recent  years. 
This  growth  is  largely  due  to  heavy  immigration. 
Prior  to  1900  our  free  or  cheap  lands  attracted 
north  Europeans  and  produced  a  rapidly  expand- 
ing farming  population.  Immigration  of  this  type 
is  more  important  as  a  wheat  producer  than  as  a 
bread  consumer,  hence  it  created  a  large  wheat 
surplus  for  export  trade.  The  greater  part  of  the 
immigrants  since  1900  have  been  south  Europeans 
who  have  been  attracted  to  cities  rather  than  to 
the  farms,  and  so  have  become  important  as 
wheat  consumers  but  not  to  any  great  extent 
as  producers. 

However,  the  situation  is  not  discouraging. 
The  limit  of  production  in  this  country  is  not  yet 
realized.  With  a  better  understanding  of  farming 


WHEAT  IN  THE  UNITED  STATES      267 

methods,  lands  made  productive  by  irrigation  and 
by  drainage,  and  crops  which  are  better  adapted 
to  climatic  conditions,  the  future  is  secure.  The 
United  States  can  double  her  present  wheat  out- 
put and  do  it  profitably  as  the  demand  for  wheat 
increases.  As  an  exporter  of  wheat  she  must  give 
way  to  the  less  densely  populated  countries, 
Australia,  Argentina,  Canada,  and  Russia.  This 
is  in  line  with  progress.  The  greater  demand  for 
wheat  at  home  is  due  to  the  increased  number  of 
people  to  be  fed.  These  people  are  actively  en- 
gaged in  various  industries,  and  as  a  result  of  their 
activities  we  are  able  to  contribute  to  commerce, 
instead  of  raw  materials,  the  finished  product  of 
mill  and  factory. 

QUESTIONS  AND  EXERCISES 

1.  Give  some  of  the  reasons  which  have  led  to  the  great 
importance  of  wheat  production  in  the  United  States. 

2.  Why  is  wheat  of  little  importance  in  New  England  ? 

3.  Suggest   reasons  why  the   first   centers  of  extensive 
wheat  production  were  in  the  valleys  of  the  Delaware,  Sus- 
quehanna,  and  Mohawk  rivers. 

4.  In   general  what  is  true  of  culture  methods  in  the 
Northeast   region  ?     Account  for  the  high  average  yield  of 
wheat  there. 

5.  What  states  of  the  Southeast  region  rank  highest  in 
wheat   production  ?     In  what   part  of  the  region   are  they 
situated  ? 

6.  Why   are  wheat   prices    comparatively   high   in   the 
Southeast  region  ? 


268  THE  WHEAT  INDUSTRY 

7.  Summarize  the  conditions  which   favor  wheat   pro- 
duction in  the  Northeast  Central  Plains  region. 

8.  Explain  why  winter  wheat  is  in  such  high  favor  in 
the  Southwest  Central  Plains. 

9.  Suggest   reasons  why   climatic  conditions   favor  the 
production  of  hard  wheats  in   Kansas   and  of  soft  wheats 
in  the  Eastern  states. 

10.  In  what  parts  of  the  United  States  is  Durum  wheat 
raised  ?     Why  is  it  not  grown  more  extensively  ? 

11.  To  what  conditions  is  the  header  best  adapted  ? 

12.  Why  is  threshing  out  of  shock  more  prevalent  in  the 
Western  great  plains  than  in  the  Eastern  states  ? 

13.  Why  is  the  farm  price  per  bushel  of  wheat  lower  in 
the  Western  great  plains  than  in  New  York  ? 

14.  Explain  why  the  combine  is  used  so  extensively  in 
Oregon  and  adjacent  states. 

15.  What  are  the  principal  highways  for  wheat  transpor- 
tation in  the  United  States  ? 

1 6.  What  foreign  countries  serve  as  the  markets  for  the 
export  wheat  of  the  United  States  ? 

17.  What  are  the  chief  wheat  export  cities  ?     Where  are 
they  situated  ? 

1 8.  Explain    how   the    price    of   wheat    in    the    United 
States   is   related   to   the    crops    in    other    exporting   coun- 
tries. 

19.  Suggest  reasons  why  the  percentage  of  flour  exported 
by  the  United  States  is  relatively  high. 

20.  What  are  the  principal  commercial  routes  for  Ameri- 
can wheat  and  flour  ? 


CHAPTER  XV 
WHEAT  IN  CANADA 

WHILE  the  Dominion  of  Canada  lies  north  of  the 
United  States,  one  part,  the  peninsula  of  Ontario, 
extends  southward  to  about  the  latitude  of  central 
Iowa.  The  northern  part,  however,  lies  beyond 
the  Arctic  Circle  and  its  extent  east  and  west  is 
more  than  3400  miles.  The  area  thus  exceeds 
that  of  the  United  States  even  including  Alaska. 
These  facts  serve  to  suggest  the  reasons  for  the 
great  diversities  in  soil,  topography,  and  climate 
which  exist  in  that  country. 

The  Canadian  Wheat-producing  Area.  -  -  Nine 
tenths  of  the  wheat-producing  area  of  Canada  lies 
in  the  south-central  part,  just  north  of  the  states 
of  North  Dakota  and  Montana.  Some  wheat  is 
grown  in  the  southeast  provinces,  Ontario,  Quebec, 
and  New  Brunswick.  There  its  importance  is 
slight,  however,  compared  with  the  area  to  the 
west.  Eastern  Ontario  is  a  region  of  diversified 
farming.  The  farms  are  small  and  much  atten- 
tion is  given  to  fruit  raising,  especially  to  apples 
and  grapes. 

269 


270 


THE  WHEAT  INDUSTRY 


WHEAT  IN  CANADA  271 

Manitoba,  Saskatchewan,  and  Alberta  are  the 
great  wheat  provinces  of  the  plains,  and  many 
valleys  in  the  mountainous  province  of  British 
Columbia  are  likewise  well  adapted  to  wheat 
growing.  The  climate  is  the  chief  control.  The 
normal  annual  rainfall  is  about  22  inches  in  Man- 
itoba, and  from  16  to  18  inches  in  Saskatchewan 
and  Alberta.  The  rainfall,  although  not  high,  is 
usually  sufficient  because  the  greater  part  of  it, 
50  to  65  per  cent,  occurs  during  the  growing  season. 
June  is  the  month  of  greatest  rainfall.  The  sum- 
mer temperatures  are  quite  high,  often  reaching 
90°  F.  ;  and  winter  temperatures  vary  considerably 
in  the  different  parts  of  the  provinces.  Southwest 
Alberta  has  a  milder  winter  than  districts  to  the 
east  and  north.  This  is  due  primarily  to  the 
chinook  winds, -- westerly  winds,  which  upon 
descending  the  mountains  are  warmed  by  com- 
pression, and  thus  reach  the  plains  quite  dry  and 
warm.  The  average  winter  temperatures  in  dif- 
ferent localities  from  December  to  March  are : 
Calgary  17.1°?.,  Fort  Chipewyan  (northeast  Al- 
berta) --  S°F.,  Winnipeg  i.7°F.  Another  impor- 
tant climatic  factor  is  the  high  percentage  of 
sunshiny  days.  This  high  average  of  sunshiny 
days  and  the  fact  that  on  these  days  the  period  of 
actual  sunshine  is  from  16  to  17  hours  make  an 
ideal  condition  for  rapid  growth.  In  fact  more 
rapid  growth  may  be  made  here  than  under  con- 


272  THE  WHEAT  INDUSTRY 

ditions  farther  south,  where  the  daily  period  of 
sunshine  is  several  hours  less.  Thus  it  will  be 
observed  that  climatic  conditions  favor  good 
yields  of  very  high  grade  wheat,  since  sufficient 
rainfall  occurs  in  the  early  stages  of  growth,  and 
warm,  bright,  sunshiny  weather  prevails  during 
the  later  growth  stages  and  through  the  harvest. 

The  prairie  soils  of  Canada  have  become  widely 
known  because  of  their  fertility.  Generally  they 
are  deep,  dark  colored,  and  mellow.  They  con- 
tain, as  a  rule,  large  percentages  of  all  the  essential 
constituents  required  for  wheat,  and  are  also 
characterized  by  exceptionally  high  humus  and 
nitrogen  content.  This  may  be  accounted  for 
by  a  rainfall  sufficiently  high  for  plant  growth  but 
not  high  enough  to  cause  heavy  leaching. 

The  Kinds  of  Wheat  raised  in  Canada.  --  Since 
severe  winters  are  prevalent  over  much  of  the 
Canadian  wheat  belt,  spring  wheat  is  the  type 
most  widely  grown.  Hard  spring  wheats  are 
common  in  Manitoba,  in  the  greater  part  of  the 
Saskatchewan,  and  in  upper  Alberta.  Soft  spring 
wheats  are  grown  in  Quebec  and  New  Brunswick. 
Hard,  winter  wheat  is  raised  in  southern  Alberta, 
while  soft  winter  wheats  are  grown  in  western 
Ontario  and  British  Columbia.  Because  of  its 
drought-resisting  properties,-  some  Durum  wheat 
is  produced  in  southern  Alberta  and  southwestern 
Saskatchewan.  Thus  it  will  be  observed  that  the 


WHEAT  IN  CANADA  273 

hard  wheats  are  grown  where  there  is  moderate 
rainfall  and  warm,  sunshiny  summer  weather,  and 
the  soft  wheats  are  grown  under  more  humid 
conditions.  The  winter  wheat  district  of  Alberta 
is  a  region  of  mild,  open  winters,  and  the  winter 
wheat  of  Columbia  and  western  Ontario  is  grown 
in  regions  where  heavy  winter  snows  protect  the 
soils  from  low  temperatures. 

Among  the  many  varieties  of  wheat  raised  in 
Canada  the  most  generally  known  of  the  spring 
wheats  are  the  Red  Fife  and  the  Blue  Stem.  The 
latter  was  introduced  from  Minnesota  and  al- 
though it  is  a  good  producer,  it  has  failed  to  be- 
come well  adapted  to  Canadian  conditions.  The 
Red  Fife  is  at  this  time  the  most  popular  spring 
wheat  grown.  The  kernels  are  pale  red,  plump, 
short,  and  hard.  This  variety  is  remarkable 
for  its  high  quality,  its  productiveness,  and  its 
power  of  adapting  itself  to  varying  soil  and  climatic 
conditions.  Among  the  hard  winter  wheats, 
Turkey  Red,  Kharkof,  and  Alberta  Red  are  best 
known.  The  latter  has  proved  very  popular  in 
Alberta. 

The  Culture  Methods. -- Although  intensive 
farming  prevails  in  parts  of  the  eastern  provinces, 
the  great  wheat  crop  of  Canada  is  raised  where 
fields  are  large.  The  usual  size  of  the  farm  is 
from  1 60  to  640  acres,  but  fields  of  several  times 
that  extent  are  not  uncommon.  The  farmers  are 


274 


THE  WHEAT  INDUSTRY 


generally  men  who,  with  some  capital,  have  gone 
there  from  the  United  States  or  else  they  are  pro- 
gressive north  Europeans.  Large  farms  handled 
by  intelligent  labor  and  the  use  of  modern  machin- 
ery characterize  the  wheat  industry  of  Canada. 

Plowing  and  Seeding. --In  the  eastern  part  of 
Canada,  a  great  part  of  the  plowing  is  done  with 


Courtesy  Canadian  Pacific  Railroad. 
FIG.  115.  — Plowing  for  wheat  in  Canada. 

the  small  walking  plow.  This  does  not  hold  true 
for  the  west,  however  ;  there  the  two-bottom  gang 
plow,  drawn  by  five  horses,  is  the  most  common, 
and  the  eight  and  twelve  bottom  gang  with  a 
steam  or  gas  tractor  is  not  an  uncommon  sight. 
Since  in  this  country  the  season  in  which  plowing 
can  be  done  is  short,  the  work  must  be  pushed 
rapidly.  For  winter  wheat  the  ground  must  be 


WHEAT  IN  CANADA  275 

plowed  as  soon  as  possible  in  the  fall.  This  per- 
mits the  early  seeding  which  is  necessary  to  give 
the  plant  its  required  autumn  growth.  Even  for 
spring  wheat  it  is  customary  to  plow  in  the  fall, 
since  earlier  seeding  in  the  spring  is  thus  made 
possible.  After  plowing,  the  ground  is  dragged 
by  wide  steel-tooth  harrows.  Sixty  to  seventy 
acres  is  an  ordinary  day's  work  for  one  man. 
After  harrowing,  the  seeding  is  then  done  by  means 
of  large  press  drills.  About  a  bushel  to  a  bushel 
and  a  half  of  seed  wheat  is  used  per  acre,  and  one 
man  can  sow  about  30  acres  per  day. 

Harvesting  the  Crop.  --After  seeding  no  further 
care  is  necessary  until  harvest  time.  The  winter 
wheat  harvest  begins  in  July  and  runs  through 
August.  The  spring  wheat  harvest  begins  in 
July  in  Ontario  and  much  of  it,  especially  in  the 
northwest,  is  not  finished  until  September.  In 
some  sections  the  harvest  comes  so  late  that  the 
crop  is  occasionally  injured  by  frost  before  it  is 
ripe.  In  such  sections  early  maturing  varieties 
are  naturally  favored. 

The  harvest  is  the  busy  season.  Then  the  work 
is  rushed,  labor  is  in  demand,  and  long  hours 
are  the  rule.  When  the  wheat  ripens  it  seems  as 
though  all  the  fields  in  the  vicinity  should  be  cut 
at  the  same  time.  If  cut  too  early,  the  wheat 
suffers  serious  loss  from  shrinkage ;  if  delayed  too 
long,  the  grain  shatters  and  is  wasted.  The  labor 


276  THE  WHEAT  INDUSTRY 

which  was  adequate  to  do  the  plowing  and  planting 
is  wholly  insufficient  to  handle  this  enormous 
and  immediate  work.  Importation  of  labor  is 
necessary.  As  noted  before  (Chapter  IV)  there  is 
in  North  America  a  class  of  labor  which  follows  the 
harvest  as  the  wheat  ripens  from  the  south  to 
the  north.  This  work  begins  in  the  southern  part 
of  the  United  States  in  June  and  crosses  into 
Canada  with  the  ripening  grain.  Although  the 
men  who  follow  this  are  not  skilled  laborers,  they 
are  at  least  trained  to  their  work.  Ordinarily  they 
are  steady  and  industrious.  Among  their  number 
will  be  found  many  college  students  who  spend  their 
summers  working  in  the  harvest  fields.  The  work, 
though  hard,  is  healthful,  and  the  wage,  usually 
from  $2.50  to  $4.00  per  day  and  board,  is  above 
the  average  for  unskilled  labor. 

Most  of  the  wheat  is  cut  by  self-binders.  The 
binder  which  takes  a  seven  or  eight  foot  swath  is 
the  one  most  commonly  in  use.  With  this  machine, 
by  changing  horses  and  working  as  high  as  sixteen 
hours,  one  outfit  can  cut  from  25  to  40  acres  per 
day.  When  labor  is  available  the  wheat  is  shocked. 
It  is  often,  however,  left  to  dry  out  on  the  ground. 
Of  course  this  is  true  only  of  the  western  plains 
section  where  the  harvest  season  is  usually  quite 
free  from  rain.  Practically  none  of  the  grain  is 
stacked  but  is  allowed  to  remain  in  the  field  until 
it  can  be  threshed.  The  header  is  seldom  used 


WHEAT  IN  CANADA 


277 


since,  when  the  wheat  is  cut,  it  is  not  dry  enough 
to  be  threshed.  It  frequently  is  not  dry  enough 
even  to  be  put  into  stacks.  In  this  region  it  has 
been  found  that  the  best  results  are  obtained  by 
allowing  the  wheat  to  become  thoroughly  dry  in 
the  shock.  This  fact  accounts  for  the  almost 
universal  use  of  the  self-binder  in  Canada. 


Courtesy  Canadian  Pacific  Railroad. 
FIG.  1 1 6.  —  Harvesting  wheat  in  Canada. 

Threshing  the  Grain.  -  -  The  wheat  is  hauled 
from  the  shocks  to  the  steam  threshers.  The 
sizes  of  the  machines  vary  greatly.  Some  have  a 
daily  capacity  of  3000  or  more  bushels,  others  less 
than  a  thousand.  The  threshers  are  usually,  not 
owned  by  the  individual  farmers,  but  by  some 
farmer  in  the  neighborhood  who  hires  his  farm  work 
done  while  he  devotes  his  time  to  running  the 
threshing  machine.  A  careful  and  businesslike 
operator  may  make  money  in  this  way.  Generally 


278  THE  WHEAT  INDUSTRY 

the  thresherman  hires  his  own  help  so  that  he 
thus  operates  a  crew.  He  then  engages  to  go  into 
a  man's  field,  gather  the  shocked  grain,  thresh  it, 
and  deliver  it  to  the  wagon  at  a  stated  price  per 
bushel.  The  men  of  the  outfit  are  generally  well 
paid,  $2.00  to  $3.00  per  day  with  board  and 
lodging  being  the  customary  wage.  A  cook  wagon 
or  tent  is  in  this  case  a  part  of  the  regular  equip- 
ment. 

Because  of  the  abundance  and  cheapness  of 
straw  as  a  fuel,  straw-burning  engines  are  often 
used  for  power.  An  expense  is  added,  however, 
since,  when  straw  burners  are  used,  one  man  is 
kept  busy  firing  the  engine. 

When  the  grain  is  threshed,  the  separator  de- 
livers it  into  large  wagons,  sometimes  called  wheat 
tanks,  which  hold  125  to  140  bushels.  The  wheat 
is  than  hauled  direct  to  the  local  elevator  and 
shipped  to  market.  There  is  very  little  local 
storage  either  in  farm  granaries  or  in  sacks  in 
local  warehouses. 

Marketing  the  Crop.  -  -  In  the  years  following 
1900,  development  of  wheat  territory  was  more 
rapid  than  that  of  railway  facilities.  This  re- 
sulted in  serious  losses  since  no  adequate  provi- 
sion existed  for  local  storage.  Wheat  was  left  on 
the  ground  in  large  piles  beside  the  railroad  tracks 
awaiting  cars  for  shipment,  and  the  delay  was  often 
so  great  that  large  quantities  were  damaged.  In 


WHEAT  IN  CANADA  279 

late  years  the  railway  facilities  have  improved  to 
such  an  extent  that  in  the  future  such  difficulties 
are  improbable. 

The  general  practice  of  the  farmer  here  is  to  sell 
his  wheat  directly  to  the  local  elevator  for  cash. 
Where  competition  in  buying  exists  this  results 
in  a  fair  price  to  the  producer.  Where,  because  of 
monopoly  in  ownership  or  operation  of  line  eleva- 
tors, there  is  no  competition,  prices  have  not  been 
held  to  a  reasonable  figure.  In  order  to  meet  such 
a  condition,  cooperative  companies  have  been 
organized  which  ship  their  own  wheat  and  sell  it 
through  commission  merchants. 

The  great  market  center  of  Canada  is  the  city 
of  Winnipeg.  There  most  of  the  grading  and 
inspecting  of  wheat  is  done,  and  a  large  Board  of 
Trade  has  been  organized.  The  importance  of  this 
city  is  partially  due  to  the  fact  that  it  is  situated 
at  the  confluence  of  two  navigable  streams,  the 
Red  River  of  the  North  and  the  Assiniboine. 
Another  and  probably  a  larger  factor  which  makes 
it  important  is  that  it  is  the  converging  point 
of  the  great  Canadian  railways.  These  factors 
cause  the  bulk  of  Canadian  wheat  shipments  to 
pass  through  Winnipeg.  Because  of  this  fact  it 
has  become  an  inspection  point, — wheat  cars 
are  there  opened,  samples  are  taken  and  graded 
and  then  used  as  a  basis  of  sales.  The  great 
elevators  which  mark  the  places  of  transfer  and 


280  THE  WHEAT  INDUSTRY 

~ 


WHEAT  IN  CANADA  281 

the  unloading  of  the  freight  cars,  however,  are 
located  at  Fort  William  and  Port  Arthur,  over  400 
miles  to  the  east  on  Lake  Superior. 

Regina,  Calgary,  and  Edmonton  are  likewise 
cities  which  have  come  to  be  of  considerable  im- 
portance because  of  the  development  of  the  wheat 
industry  in  various  Canadian  regions. 

The  Extent  to  which  Wheat  is  Produced  in 
Canada.  -  -  The  large  plains  of  Canada  seem  to  be 
as  well  adapted  to  wheat  growing  on  a  grand  scale 
as  any  similar  area  in  the  world.  Extensive,  un- 
developed wheat  tracts  lie  in  northern  Alberta  and 
Saskatchewan.  Likewise  many  valleys  in  British 
Columbia  are  also  thought  to  be  well  adapted  to 
extensive  wheat  growing. 

The  total  production  in  1913  was  reported  to 
be  231,717,000  bushels  ;  in  1902  it  was  100,523,000 
bushels.  Thus  in  a  decade  there  is  shown  an  in- 
crease of  more  than  125  per  cent.  The  average 
yield  in  1913  was  21.04  bushels  per  acre.  This  is  a 
low  average,  rather  lower  than  the  average  yearly 
yield,  for  1913  was  not  a  year  of  exceptionally  good 
crops.  Yields  as  high  as  40  bushels  per  acre 
are  not  unusual  in  the  wheat  districts  west  of 
Winnipeg,  although  on  the  other  hand  the  crops 
are  sometimes  reduced  by  drought  or  frost  so  that 
10  or  15  bushels  per  acre  is  all  that  is  produced. 
In  these  regions,  however,  because  of  the  favorable 
soil,  climate,  and  intelligent  methods  of  farming, 


282  THE  WHEAT  INDUSTRY 

the  general  average  production  per  acre  is  high.  It 
even  exceeds  by  five  or  six  bushels  the  average 
yield  in  the  wheat  regions  of  the  United  States. 

Since  the  cost  of  production  must  include  de- 
livery to  local  markets,  the  profit  very  often  is 
influenced  by  the  condition  of  the  roads  at  market- 
ing season.  In  the  newly  settled  regions,  road 
building  is  not  far  advanced  and  distances  to 
markets  are  often  great,  —  as  much  as  twenty  or 
thirty  miles  in  some  instances.  The  local  market- 
ing conditions  vary  so  greatly  in  different  sections 
that  any  average  costs  of  marketing  that  could  be 
stated  would  have  little  value. 

Canada  wheat  lands  have  been  low  priced  in 
proportion  to  production  values.  It  is  evident 
when  one  considers  the  interest  on  the  money  in- 
vested that  wheat  can  be  raised  more  cheaply  on 
land  that  sells  for  $10  or  $15  per  acre  than  on  land 
valued  at  $150.00  per  acre.  At  this  time,  with  the 
low-priced  land  and  the  high  yield  of  wheat,  the 
average  cost  of  production  in  Canada  is  estimated 
to  be  about  40  cents  per  bushel.  This,  however, 
does  not  include  expense  of  marketing.  Of  course, 
as  the  land  becomes  higher  priced  the  cost  of  pro- 
duction will  be  relatively  increased. 

The  Exportation  of  Canadian  Wheat.  —  Canada 
has  become  one  of  the  great  wheat-exporting 
countries  of  the  world.  Her  exports  of  wheat 
and  flour  are  now  nearly  as  great  as  those  of  the 


WHEAT  IN  CANADA 


283 


United  States  and  the  indications  point  to  even 
greater  progress  in  the  future.  She  exports  an- 
nually nearly  one  half  of  her  total  wheat  crop, 
most  of  which  goes  to  the  mother  country,  Great 
Britain.  Of  her  wheat  exports  only  about  one 
fifth  is  in  the  form  of  flour,  whereas  flour  constitutes 


Courtesy  Canadian  Pacific  Railroad. 
FIG.  1 1 8.  —  Grain  elevators  in  Canada. 

nearly  one  half  of  the  wheat  exports  from  the 
United  States.  This  difference  partially  results 
from  the  rapid  extension  of  wheat  growing  in 
Canada,  which  has  been  so  rapid  that  milling  has 
not  been  able  to  keep  pace  with  it.  It  is  further 
a  result  of  the  fact  that  flour  can  be  made  more 


284  THE  WHEAT  INDUSTRY 

cheaply  in  England  than  in  the  New  World,  since 
milling  is  there  well  developed  and  labor  is  cheaper. 
Canada  exports  at  present  from  30  to  50  per  cent 
more  bushels  of  wheat  annually  than  does  the 
United  States.  On  the  other  hand  she  exports 
only  about  two. fifths  as  many  barrels  of  flour. 

Extensive  preparation  has  been  made  to  care 
for  and  develop  this  export  trade.  Canada  has 
five  great  railways  whose  chief  interest  lies  in  the 
wheat  traffic.  Of  these,  the  Canadian  Pacific, 
the  Canadian  Northern,  and  the  Grand  Trunk 
are  the  most  important.  The  Canadian  Pacific 
connects  the  Atlantic  coast  with  the  Pacific.  It 
also  furnishes  a  direct  line  from  Winnipeg  to 
Fort  William  and  Port  Arthur,  the  Lake  Superior 
terminals  of  the  wheat  traffic.  The  Grand  Trunk 
connects  Winnipeg  with  Montreal  and  Quebec,  and 
Portland,  Maine.  Its  summer  port  is  Montreal, 
and  its  winter  port,  because  of  the  ice-bound  St. 
Lawrence,  is  Portland.  It  has  recently  built  a 
western  line  to  Prince  Rupert  by  which  it  con- 
nects the  wheat  fields  of  Canada  with  the  Pacific 
Ocean.  This  connection  with  Pacific  ports  will 
provide  an  all-year  water  highway  for  export 
trade,  and  shipments  of  wheat  can  then  be  made 
from  western  Canada  by  way  of  the  Panama 
Canal  across  the  Atlantic  to  England.  This  will 
prove  a  great  benefit  to  the  wheat  regions  of  the 
Canadian  northwest,  for  they  can  then  reach  Euro- 


WHEAT  IN  CANADA  285 

pean  markets  much  more  cheaply  than  by  the 
long  railway  haul  to  eastern  ports. 

The  natural  outlet  for  Canadian  wheat  is  the 
Hudson  Bay  route.  There  is,  however,  even  in 
the  summer  the  ever  present  danger  of  ice  in 
Hudson  Strait,  and  the  whole  route  is  ice-bound 
during  much  of  the  season  when  it  is  most  urgently 
needed  for  the  wheat  trade.  The  same  is  true  to 
a  large  extent  of  the  St.  Lawrence.  Only  a  part 
of  the  year's  export  can  be  sent  by  way  of  Montreal 
and  Quebec  before  the  river  freezes  over.  This 
results  in  the  fact  that  much  of  the  Canadian  wheat 
is  sent  through  part  of  the  United  States  ''  in 
bond."  This  means  that  the  wheat  is  not  to  be 
sold  in  United  States  markets,  and  that  it  is  per- 
mitted to  pass  through  this  country  only  to  reach 
an  export  city,  where  it  is  to  be  loaded  into  vessels 
and  sent  to  foreign  markets.  We  can  thus  see 
how  Canadian  climatic  disadvantages  serve  to 
assist  the  carrying  trade  of  this  country  and  in- 
crease the  volume  of  business  of  some  of  our 
Atlantic  seaports.  The  cities  which  gain  most  by 
this  condition  are  Portland,  Boston,  New  York,  and 
Baltimore. 

QUESTIONS  AND  EXERCISES 

1.  Where   in  Canada  is  the  greater  part  of  the  wheat- 
producing  area  ? 

2.  Explain  how  the  climate  of  this  part  favors  the  pro- 
duction of  high  grade  wheat. 


286  THE  WHEAT  INDUSTRY 

3.  In  what  parts  of  Canada  are  winter  wheats  success- 
fully grown  ?     What  climatic  conditions  prevail  there  ? 

4.  In  general  how  do  cultural  methods  of  Canada  com- 
pare with  those  of  the  United  States  ? 

5.  When    does    the    harvest    season    come  ?     Why    are 
early  maturing  varieties  of  wheat  desired  in  some  places  ? 

6.  Explain  why  imported  help  is  necessary  at  harvest 
time  in  order  to  care  properly  for  the  crop. 

7.  Why  is  large-sized  harvesting  and  threshing  machinery 
in  such  general  use  in  the  wheat  fields  of  Canada  ? 

8.  Of  what  importance  has  modern  machinery  been  in 
the  development  of  Canadian  wheat  lands  ? 

9.  Explain  how  railroad  development  has  affected  the 
wheat  industry  of  Canada. 

10.  What   is  the  great  wheat-marketing   center  ?     What 
causes  have  contributed  to  the  supremacy  of  this  city  ? 

11.  Of   what    importance    are    Fort    William    and    Port 
Arthur  ?     Where  are  they  located  ? 

12.  How  does  the  total  production  of  wheat  in  Canada 
compare    with    that   of    the    United    States  ?  the    average 
yield  per  acre  ? 

13.  What  country  serves  as  the  chief  market  for  Cana- 
dian wheat  ?     Why  is  most  of  the  wheat  exported  unmilled  ? 

14.  Trace  the  trade  routes  of  Canadian  wheat  to  Euro- 
pean markets. 

15.  Give   a  brief  report  on  the  importance  of  Canada 
as  a  wheat  producer,  present  and  future. 


CHAPTER  XVI 
WHEAT  IN  ASIA 

THAT  Asia,  the  home  of  early  civilization,  should 
be  important  as  a  wheat  producer  is  to  be  expected. 
Wheat  is  the  most  universally  grown  cereal  on  that 
continent.  To  its  early  culture  there  and  the  favor 
in  which  it  was  held,  this  grain  owes  its  high  place 
in  history  and  literature.  Asia  has  presented 
wheat  to  the  world  as  symbolic  of  goodness  and 
prosperity. 

Though  wheat  is  produced  in  nearly  every  coun- 
try of  Asia,  only  two  Asiatic  countries  are  impor- 
tant contributors  to  the  wheat  of  commerce.  The 
reason  is  twofold :  first,  the  dense  population 
which  prevails  over  much  of  the  territory  uses  the 
local  output ;  and  second,  the  primitive  methods 
of  production  which  are  still  in  vogue  limit  the 
total  yield.  In  China,  Palestine,  and  the  valley 
of  the  Euphrates,  wheat  is  produced  by  nearly  the 
same  methods  as  were  used  two  thousand  years 
ago.  It  is  a  singular  fact  that  the  only  two  coun- 
tries in  Asia  which  export  wheat  are  the  two  which 
have  most  strongly  felt  European  influence,  - 

287 


288 


THE  WHEAT  INDUSTRY 


Asiatic  Russia  and  India  [See  map,  Fig.  57].  This 
becomes  more  significant  when  one  considers  that 
these  countries  are  typical  of  the  northern  and 
the  southern  parts  of  the  continent. 


Underwood. 


FIG.  1 19.  —  Threshing  scene  in  the  Holy  Land. 

The  Wheat  Region  of  Asiatic  Russia.  --  Location 
and  Extent.  -  -  Russia  in  Asia  may  be  considered 
in  three  grand  divisions :  Siberia,  which  is 
roughly  estimated  to  contain  4,833,500  square 
miles ;  Central  Asiatic  Russia,  which  includes 
Turkestan,  Transcaspia,  Bokhara,  and  Khiva, 


WHEAT  IN  ASIA  289 

with  a  total  of  1,120,000  square  miles  ;  and  the 
Transcaucasus  province  lying  between  the  Black 
and  Caspian  seas. 

The  Wheat  Area  in  Siberia.  --  Siberia  is  larger 
than  all  Europe.  In  population,  however,  it 
but  slightly  exceeds  one  person  per  square  mile. 
It  extends  across  Asia  in  approximately  the  same 
latitude  as  Canada.  It  is  estimated  that  there 
are  about  500,000  square  miles  of  fertile,  black 
soil  which  is  well  adapted  to  cereal  production. 
Two  hundred  twelve  thousand  square  miles  of 
this  soil  lie  in  west  Siberia,  and  about  288,000 
square  miles  in  east  Siberia.  Of  the  103,283,000 
bushels  of  wheat  produced  by  Asiatic  Russia  in 
1912,  Siberia  contributed  much  more  than  one 
half.  This  is  further  localized  in  that  at  present 
the  principal  grain-producing  regions  are  those 
in  the  western  part  of  Siberia. 

The  Climate  and  Soil.  -  -  In  all  the  producing 
area  the  two  chief  factors  to  be  considered  are 
latitude  and  altitude.  Of  course  in  each  case  this 
is  largely  a  temperature  control.  The  high  plains 
to  the  southeast  because  of  their  altitude  suffer 
from  early  frosts  so  frequently  that  grains  cannot 
be  depended  upon  to  mature,  •  Likewise  in  the 
lowlands  of  western  Siberia  the  climate  is  un- 
favorable for  successful  cultivation  north  of  61° 
north  latitude.  The  principal  agricultural  re- 
gion thus  lies  between  parallels  55°  and  57°.  This 


290  THE  WHEAT  INDUSTRY 

is  the  zone  where  the  northern  forests  gradually 
merge  into  the  dry,  steppes  of  the  south.  This 
belt  is  over  100  miles  in  width  from  north  to  south 
and  has  an  extent  from  east  to  west  of  more  than 
a  thousand  miles.  The  soil  is  a  fertile,  black 
loam.  Of  this  vast  area  only  about  3  per  cent  is  at 
present  being  farmed.  Immigration  from  Euro- 
pean Russia  has  been  going  on  rapidly,  however,  in 
recent  years,  to  such  an  extent  that  nearly  half 
a  million  people  settled  in  this  part  of  Siberia  in  a 
single  year.  Farther  eastward  development  has 
not  been  so  rapid  as  in  the  west. 

The  Machinery  of  Cultivation.  -  -  The  tools  and 
implements  of  the  Siberian  peasant  are  of  crude 
and  primitive  types.  The  plow  is  large  and 
clumsy  and  is  usually  homemade.  It  turns  a 
wide  furrow  but  in  order  to  do  so  it  requires  the 
combined  strength  of  3  to  8  yoke  of  oxen  or  teams 
of  horses.  Sowing  is  by  hand,  and  crude  har- 
rows are  used  to  cover  the  grain.  Almost  all  of 
the  wheat  raised  is  of  spring  varieties.  Of  late, 
however,  modern  methods  are  gradually  being 
introduced.  American  harvesting  and  threshing 
machine  firms  are  engaged  in  an  educational  cam- 
paign which  is  designed  to  stimulate  to  better 
methods  of  production,  and  thereby  create  a  de- 
mand for  their  machinery.  Modern  threshers  are 
also  to  some  extent  replacing  the  flail  and  threshing 
floor. 


WHEAT  IN  ASIA  291 

The  Extent  of  Production.  -  -Though  the  amount 
of  wheat  produced  in  Siberia  is  steadily  increasing, 
the  rate  of  increase  is  but  little  greater  than  that 
of  local  demand.  It  is  thus  easily  seen  that  un- 
less the  cultivated  area  is  increased  much  more 
rapidly  than  it  has  been  in  the  past,  and  unless 
more  efficient  methods  of  production  are  intro- 
duced, the  amount  of  export  wheat  from  Siberia 
cannot  be  expected  to  show  a  very  rapid  increase. 

The  Wheat  Region  of  Central  Asiatic  Russia.  - 
This  area  is  sometimes  called  Turkestan.  It  is 
located  east  of  the  Caspian  Sea  and  includes  a 
stretch  of  land  which  has  an  extent  of  nearly  1600 
miles  east  and  west  and  from  500  to  700  miles 
north  and  south.  Physically  it  consists  of  two 
very  distinct  divisions, -- the  eastern  mountain 
and  plateau  region  and  the  western  low-lying 
plains.  In  these  plains  there  is  a  great  deal  of 
loess  soil. 

The  climate  is  dry  and  characterized  by  great 
extremes  of  temperature.  Although  it  is  the 
same  latitude  as  Sicily,  the  winters  are  cold,  and 
the  summer  temperatures  often  exceed  100°  in  the 
shade.  The  winter  winds  are  likewise  strong  and 
so  the  snow  that  falls  is  usually  blown  into  drifts. 
The  annual  rainfall  is  but  n  inches,  and  most  of 
this  falls  in  the  higher  altitudes.  The  snow  and 
rainfall  of  the  mountains,  however,  furnish  a 
continual  flow  of  water  in  the  rivers  which  traverse 


292 


THE  WHEAT  INDUSTRY 


the  region  and  large  irrigation  projects  are  thus 
made  possible.  In  the  province  of  Bokhara  the 
Amu  River  furnishes  water  for  thousands  of  highly 
productive  acres  which,  were  it  not  for  irrigation, 
would  be  barren  wastes.  It  is  estimated  that  in 

this  region  nearly 
4,000,000  acres 
are  now  culti- 
vated under  irri- 
gation. 

The  Methods  of 
Cultivation.  — 
Old  methods  of 
cultivation  are 
here  also  still  in 
vogue.  In  any 
part  of  the  coun- 
try it  is  a  com- 
mon sight  to  see 
a  camel  and  an  ox 

jpyright  by  Underwood  and  Underwood. 
FIG.  120.  — Threshing  wheat  in  Turkestan.  yoked        together, 

making    a    team 

which  pulls  a  primitive  plow  across  the  field.  The 
harvesting  is  done  by  the  sickle  and  men  labori- 
ously cut  the  grain  by  creeping  along  on  their 
knees.  They  are  followed  by  others  who  pick  up 
the  grain  stalks  and  bind  them  into  sheaves. 
These  wheat  sheaves  are  then  loaded  upon  the 
backs  of  donkeys,  camels,  or  men  and  are  carried 


WHEAT  IN  ASIA  293 

into  huts  made  of  dry  mud.  There  they  are 
placed  in  storage  until  threshing  time.  The 
bundles  are  then  loosened  ;  the  stalks  of  grain  are 
spread  over  the  floor ;  and  the  wheat  is  tramped 
from  the  straw  by  the  hoofs  of  cattle  or  donkeys 
which  are  driven  over  it.  Modern  threshers  have 
not  yet  found  their  way  to  this  part  of  Asia. 

In  noticeable  contrast  to  European  countries  is 
the  fact  that  the  work  in  the  fields  is  all  done  by 
men.  Mohammedan  restrictions  forbid  outdoor 
labor  for  women. 

The  available  statistics  for  this  region  give 
18,104,000  bushels  as  the  average  annual  pro- 
duction for  the  years  1901-1908  inclusive.  Re- 
liable data  are  impossible  to  secure  and  so  the 
above  is  thus  very,  little  better  than  an  estimate. 

The  Wheat  Region  of  Transcaucasia.  -  -  Un- 
der this  head  is  included  the  land  which  lies  be- 
tween the  Black  and  the  Caspian  seas,  an  area  of 
approximately  180,000  square  miles.  This  coun- 
try has  also  a  diversity  of  topography,  soil,  and 
climate.  Since  the  broad  valleys  of  the  eastern 
slope  are  deficient  in  rainfall,  they  are  not  exten- 
sively cultivated. 

The  western  slope,  on  the  other  hand,  with 
fairly  dependable  rainfall  and  a  fertile  soil,  is  one 
of  the  richest  parts  of  the  Russian  Empire. 

Methods    of  Cultivation   and    Transportation.  - 
Agricultural  methods  are  primitive  here  also  and 


294  THE  WHEAT  INDUSTRY 

homemade  implements  are  used.  Wooden  plows, 
hand  sowing,  reaping  by  means  of  scythe  or  sickle, 
and  flail  threshing,  are  the  common  operations. 
Because  so  much  hand  labor  is  available  and 
because  the  work  is  so  well  done,  the  country 
produces  large  crops  of  wheat,  as  well  as  of  other 
cereals,  in  spite  of  the  primitive  methods  in  vogue. 

The  development  of  any  country  is  largely 
dependent  upon  its  transportation  facilities.  No- 
where has  this  fact  been  better  demonstrated  than 
in  the  case  of  Asiatic  Russia.  The  isolation  here 
has  been  largely  due  to  lack  of  adequate  means  of 
commercial  intercourse.  The  country,  has,>  how- 
ever, two  great  transportation  agencies  that  must 
be  considered, -- its  railways  and  rivers. 

Of  the  Trans-Siberian  Railway  it  has  been 
said,  "  It  is  destined  to  have  a  more  far-reaching 
political  and  commercial  influence  than  any  in- 
dustrial and  economic  scheme  that  has  ever  been 
executed."  This  great  railroad  extends  from 
Moscow  in  Europe  to  Vladivostok  on  the  Pacific 
coast.  In  its  total  length  of  6100  miles  it  trav- 
erses central  western  Siberia  and  extends  the 
entire  length  of  the  south  border  of  eastern  Siberia. 
It  furnishes  an  outlet  both  to  the  east  and  the 
west  for  this  enormous  territory  which  it  serves. 

To  the  south  has  been  built  the  Transcaspian 
railway.  It  bears  the  same  relation  to  Turkestan 
that  the  Trans-Siberian  railroad  bears  to  Siberia. 


WHEAT  IN  ASIA  295 

That  its  influence  is  being  felt  is  evidenced  by  the 
fact  that  even  now  the  caravan  trade  of  the  east 
is  being  diverted  from  India  into  Russia.  Both 
of  these  great  railways  were  built  primarily  as 
military  lines,  but  they  are  fast  becoming  highways 
of  commerce. 

Siberia  is  characterized  by  her  long  rivers, 
among  which  the  chief  ones  are  the  Obi,  the 
Yenisei,  and  the  Lena.  The  main  trunks  of  these 
streams  extend  southward  1000  to  1200  miles  and, 
with  their  tributaries,  spread  fanlike  through  an 
immense  area  of  country.  The  great  drawback 
to  all  the  Siberian  streams  is  that  they  flow  north- 
ward into  a  frozen  sea.  In  spite  of  this  fact 
transportation,  developed  along  the  upper  courses, 
may  be  made  tributary  to  railway  lines.  This 
will  partly  solve  the  problem  for  a  vast  area  of 
country.  Since  the  whole  region  is  a  vast  plain, 
the  construction  of  roads  will  not  demand  any 
great  amount  of  engineering  skill.  Siberia,  indeed, 
is  a  country  of  vast  and  magnificent  distances. 

Most  of  the  wheat  exported  from  Siberia  is 
shipped  by  rail  through  European  Russia  to  the 
countries  of -western  Europe.  The  principal  mar- 
kets have  been  in  Germany.  The  export  trade 
has  been  hampered  by  lack  of  railroads,  and 
recent  development  has  only  partly  overcome  this 
difficulty. 

Commercially,  wheat  in  Asiatic  Russia  is  more 


296  THE  WHEAT  INDUSTRY 

important  because  of  its  future  prospect  than  for 
its  present  supply.  There  are  vast  areas  of  cheap, 
unused  'land  which  are  fairly  well  adapted  to 
wheat  raising.  With  the  cultivation  of  these 
lands  and  the  building  of  railways  and  canals, 
Asiatic  Russia  gives  promise  of  producing  a  large 
wheat  surplus.  The  outlook  then  is  for  this 
country  to  become  of  increasing  importance  in 
the  wheat  commerce  of  the  world. 

The  Wheat  Region  of  British  India.  -  -  Location 
and  Extent.  -  -  British  India  extends  from  8°  to  37° 
north  latitude.  Its  northern  extreme  thus  lies 
farther  south  than  does  the  greater  part  of  the 
United  States.  Its  area  is  approximately  one 
half  as  great  and  its  population  is  about  three 
times  as  large.  The  density  of  the  population  as 
well  as  its  position  is  in  marked  contrast  with  that 
of  Asiatic  Russia. 

Wheat  is  grown  to  some  extent  in  nearly  all 
parts  of  India,  but  the  great  wheat  district  is  in 
the  north,  especially  in  the  northwest  provinces. 
The  wheat  area  of  India  is  approximately  one 
ninth  of  that  of  the  entire  world. 

The  Punjab  district,  in  northwest  India,  because 
of  the  development  of  irrigation  systems  has  come 
to  be  of  great  importance  as  a  wheat  producer. 
The  methods  of  irrigation  here  vary  from  those 
where  wells  and  storage  tanks  are  used  to  highly 
developed  river  and  canal  systems.  Because  of 


WHEAT  IN  ASIA  297 

the  smooth  land  and  the  low  river  banks  in  the 
Punjab  district,  the  system  where  canals  from  the 
river  are  used  has  developed  rapidly. 

The  Seasons.  —  The  Indian  year  has  three 
seasons,  --  the  hot,  the  rainy,  and  the  cool.  The 
hot  season  begins  in  March  and  lasts  until  July ; 
the  rainy  season  is  from  June  to  October,  during 
the  southwest  monsoon ;  and  the  cool  season 
covers  the  balance  of  the  year.  During  the  rainy 
season  all  of  India  except  a  strip  along  the  east 
coast  receives  much  rain.  During  a  single  season 
the  variance  in  amount  of  rainfall  for  different 
parts  of  India  is  decidedly  great.  Likewise  the 
amount  in  a  single  district  varies  greatly  from 
year  to  year.  This  uncertainty  has  caused  many 
crop  failures  and  famines  and  has  led  to  the  use  of 
the  irrigation  systems. 

Two  crops  are  grown  each  year,  --  the  summer 
crop  and  the  winter  crop.  The  summer  crop  is 
sown  in  June  or  July  and  is  harvested  in  October 
and  November.  This  crop  is  usually  maize, 
millet,  rice,  or  other  grain.  Wheat,  in  northern 
India,  is  the  so-called  winter  crop.  It  is  sown  at 
the  close  of  the  southwest  monsoon,  September 
or  October,  and  is  harvested  from  Feburary  to 
April.  During  the  growing  period  of  the  wheat  the 
sky  is  clear  and  the  weather  cool  and  dry.  Thus 
the  wheat  ripens  before  the  advent  of  the  hot  season. 

The  Soil  of  the  Wheat  Region.  —  A  great  part  of 


298  THE  WHEAT  INDUSTRY 

the  wheat-producing  area  of  India  is  confined  to 
the  large  alluvial  plains  found  along  the  Indus 
river  and  its  tributaries.  Here,  as  elsewhere  in 
India,  the  success  of  the  crop  is  due  to  the  fact 
that  a  highly  fertile  soil  is  found  in  a  region  where 
there  is  a  favorable  climate. 

The  Culture  Methods.  -  -  The  varieties  of  wheat 
grown  here  are  only  those  which  make  good 
white  flour.  The  reason  for  this  becomes  evident 
when  we  realize  that  nearly  all  the  wheat  is  sent  to 
England  and  is  there  used  in  bread  making.  Thus 
wheat  which  gives  dark  or  inferior  flour  does  not 
find  ready  markets. 

The  soil  is  prepared  toward  the  end  of  the 
monsoon  period  by  the  use  of  crude,  wooden 
plows.  Often  several  plowings  are  necessary. 
The  wheat  is  generally  sown  by  hand.  In  the 
south  the  harvest  begins  in  February  and  advances 
northward  with  the  season  until  in  April  northern 
India  is  reached.  In  many  places  reaping  is  still 
done  with  the  sickle  or  scythe,  and  the  threshing 
by  treading  the  grain  on  an  earthen  floor  and 
winnowing  by  hand. 

Although  the  English  have  introduced  modern 
machinery  to  some  extent,  progress  is  slow.  This 
is  because  of  the-  small  landholdings  and  the 
poverty  of  the  people.  Few  farmers  have  the 
capital  necessary  to  purchase  modern  implements 
and,  even  were  they  able  to  do  so,  the  native 


WHEAT  IN  ASIA  299 

Hindus  would  have  difficulty  in  learning  to  oper- 
ate complicated  machinery.  Slow  progress  is  at 
best  all  that  can  be  expected. 

The  Production  of  Wheat  in  this  Region.  —  The 
total  production  of  wheat  in  1913  was  reported  to 
be  358,314,000  bushels.  This  is  about  typical  of 
normal  conditions.  The  average  yield  varies  from 
12  to  15  bushels  per  acre,  though  of  course  much 
higher  yields  occur  in  many  places.  Because  of 
the  small  capital  invested  and  the  cheapness  of 
labor,  the  cost  of  production  is  very  low.  This 
cheapness  of  labor  may  be  in  part  explained  by 
the  fact  that  standards  of  living  are  not  nearly  so 
high  among  Indian  wheat  raisers  as  among  those 
of  North  America. 

The  Marketing  of  the  Wheat.  -  -  Because  of  the 
hordes  of  moths  and  weevils  which  attack  it  dur- 
ing the  hot  season,  wheat  in  India  deteriorates 
rapidly.  For  this  reason  it  must  be  marketed  as 
soon  as  possible  after  it  is  threshed.  In  the  rush 
following  harvest,  transportation  facilities  are 
severely  taxed.  There  are  no  elevators  to  care 
for  the  grain  ;  and  railway  service  is  inadequate. 
In  some  parts  of  the  country  the  wheat  is  delivered 
to  the  railway  towns  by  bullock  wagons  or  by 
human  carriers.  In  other  cases  where  streams  are 
available,  it  is  delivered  to  river  and  canal  ports 
by  small  boats.  From  these  receiving  stations  it  is 
then  carried  either  by  rail  or  by  boat  to  the  larger 


300  THE  WHEAT  INDUSTRY 

export  centers  and  is  there  loaded  into  the  ocean- 
going vessels. 

The  Exportation  of  Wheat.  --  Since  the  people 
of  India  live  largely  on  other  grains,  especially 
rice,  millet,  and  corn,  a  large  percentage  of  the 
wheat  produced  is  exported.  Much  hand  labor 
is  employed  in  loading  the  vessels,  for  native 
workers  are  plentiful  and  wages  are  low.  Indian 
wheat  is  dirty  and  badly  graded,  in  marked  con- 
trast to  the  clean  and  well-graded  wheat  from 
Canada.  The  inferior  market  condition  of  the 
Indian  product  is  due  to  the  circumstances  under 
which  it  is  raised.  Most  of  it  is  grown  on  small 
peasants'  holdings,  is  threshed  by  flail  or  is  trodden 
out  by  bullocks  on  a  dirt  floor,  and  is  winnowed  by 
the  wind.  This  growing  of  small  patches  in  many 
districts  causes  a  mixing  of  the  varieties,  and  the  poor 
threshing  leaves  it  badly  mixed  with  chaff  and  dirt. 
For  these  reasons  in  English  markets  the  Indian 
wheat  brings  a  lower  price  than  that  from  Canada. 

Although  India  has  several  good  harbors,  be- 
cause of  insufficient  protection  they  nearly  all 
suffer  from  the  winds  and  storms  of  the  monsoon 
season.  The  most  important  export  centers  are 
Karachi,  Bombay,  Calcutta,  and  Madras.  In 
spite  of  the  fact  that  its  harbor  is  never  safe  for 
large  steamers  during  monsoon  storms,  Karachi  is 
India's  greatest  wheat-exporting  center. 

The  harbors   of  India   are  not   equipped   with 


WHEAT  IN  ASIA  301 

large  elevators  such  as  characterize  the  seaports 
of  eastern  United  States.  The  ocean  steamers 
must  lie  at  anchor  some  distance  out  in  the  harbor. 
The  sacked  wheat  is  carried  in  small  boats,  called 
lighters,  from  the  shore  to  the  freight  steamers, 
and  is  there  reloaded  for  its  long  journey.  This 
is  quite  different  from  the  methods  employed  in 
American  seaports.  There  the  harbors  are  suf- 
ficiently deep  for  the  great  steamers  to  lie  along- 
side the  elevators  and  to  be  loaded  by  letting  the 
grain  slide  through  chutes  into  the  hold  of  the  vessel. 

The  Export  Routes.  -  -  England  furnishes  the 
principal  market.  Exports  from  India  are  sent 
via  the  Suez  Canal  and  the  Mediterranean  Sea  to 
the  English  seaports,  Southampton,  London,  and 
Liverpool.  Freight  steamers  usually  make  this 
trip  in  from  thirty  to  forty  days. 

The  surplus  wheat  of  India  is  exchanged  for 
the  manufactured  goods  of  Great  Britain.  India 
thus  serves  as  a  market  for  the  manufactures  pro- 
duced by  English  labor,  and  she  is  also  an  impor- 
tant contributor  to  England's  food  supply.  India, 
Canada,  and  Australia  are  the  great  wheat-pro- 
ducing colonies  of  Great  Britain. 

QUESTIONS  AND  EXERCISES 

1.  Of  what  importance  is  Asia  in  the  early  history   of 
wheat  ? 

2.  Why  are  so  few  Asiatic  countries  important  contrib- 
utors of  commercial  wheat  ? 


302  THE  WHEAT  INDUSTRY 

3.  How  does  Siberia  compare  in  size  with  the  United 
States  ?     What  part  of  Siberia  is  now  important  in  wheat 
production  ? 

4.  What   characterizes  the  cultural   methods  of  wheat 
production  in  Siberia  ?     Why  are  American  manufacturers 
interested  in  developing  better  methods  there  ? 

5.  Account  for  the  primitive  methods  of  cultivation  and 
harvest  still  in  vogue  in  Turkestan. 

6.  Explain  how  Asiatic  Russia  is  situated  with  reference 
to  natural  transportation  facilities.     What  steps  have  been 
taken  by  the  Russian  government  to  remedy  this  condition  ? 

7.  How   will    improved    transportation    facilities    affect 
the  development  of  the  wheat  industry  ? 

8.  What  countries  serve  as  the  markets  for  the  wheat 
exported  from  Asiatic  Russia  ?     Trace  the  trade  routes. 

9.  Where   are   the   most   important  wheat   districts   of 
India  ? 

10.  What  relation  does  the  climate  of  India  bear  to  its 
wheat  production  ? 

11.  Why   is   modern   machinery   not   used   generally   in 
India  ? 

12.  What   conditions   render   early   marketing   of  wheat 
imperative  in  India  ?     Of  what  importance  is  climate  in  this 
respect  ? 

13.  Explain  why  India,  in  spite  of  very  dense  population, 
is  an  important  wheat-exporting  country. 

14.  To  what  country  is  the  greater  part  of  the  Indian  ex- 
port wheat  sent  ?  by  what  routes  ? 

15.  Compare  the  market  condition  of  wheat  from  India 
with  that  from  Canada.     Account  for  the  difference. 


CHAPTER  XVII 
WHEAT  IN  EUROPE 

EVERY  country  in  Europe  produces  wheat. 
Even  on  the  plateaus  and  mountain  regions  of 
Montenegro,  of  Switzerland,  of  northern  Spain, 
and  of  Portugal,  it  is  an  important  food  supply. 
In  some  of  these  places,  however,  where  soil  and 
climate  are  unfavorable  to  the  common  wheats, 
the  small  primitive  type,  Einkorn,  is  the  only 
kind  that  is  grown.  Commercially  wheat  is  of 
great  importance  only  in  the  following  countries  : 
Russia,  Austria-Hungary,  the  Balkan  States,  Italy, 
Spain,  France,  Germany,  and  the  United  Kingdom. 
These  countries  are  representative  of  all  parts  of 
Europe. 

The  Wheat  Region  of  Russia.  --  Climate  and 
Soil.  —  Practically  all  of  European  Russia  south  of 
latitude  58°-6o°,  as  far  as  temperature  is  concerned, 
permits  wheat  production.  The  actual  wheat  re- 
gion, however,  begins  several  degrees  farther  south. 
The  rainfall  varies  from  less  than  10  inches  per 
year  in  the  southeastern  part  to  about  24  inches 
in  the  region  near  the  Baltic  Sea.  The  greater  part 
of  the  rainfall  occurs  during  the  growing  season. 

303 


304  THE  WHEAT  INDUSTRY 


WHEAT  IN  EUROPE 


305 


The  soil  generally  is  fertile,  that  of  the  Black 
Earth  district  being  particularly  so.  Since  the 
Steppe  region  of  the  southeast  is  salty  in  many 
places,  and  has  a  deficient  rainfall,  it  is  not  fitted 
for  wheat  production. 

Culture  Methods.  -  -  The  methods  of  production 
vary  from  the  most  primitive  to  the  most  advanced. 


FIG.  122.  — A  wheat  harvest  in  Russia. 


Among  the  poorer  classes  of  farmers,  the  small 
landowners  or  tenants,  the  common  plow  is  con- 
sidered a  luxury.  With  them,  hand  labor  is  in- 
volved in  every  process,  whether  it  be  turning 
the  ground  by  wooden  plows,  harvesting  the  grain 
by  sickle  or  cradle,  or  threshing  by  flail.  The 
private  holders  of  large  estates  and  the  larger 
farmers  employ  methods  which  are  similar  to  those 


306  THE  WHEAT  INDUSTRY 

used  in  the  United  States.  This  class  of  producers 
operate  gang  plows,  press  drills,  and  modern 
binders  and  threshers.  In  fact  during  recent 
years  southwestern  Russia  has  been  a  good  market 
region  for  American-made  machinery,  particularly 
for  binders. 

Kinds  of  Wheat.  --  Conditions  are  favorable 
for  winter  wheat  and  it  is  grown  extensively  in 
both  Poland  (western  Russia)  and  in  the  vicinity 
of  the  Black  Sea.  In  Poland  snows  protect  the 
wheat  from  being  winterkilled,  and  in  the  Black 
Sea  region  the  temperatures  in  winter  are  moderate, 
and  wheat  is  able  to  live  through  the  season. 

Generally,  however,  spring  wheat  is  the  more 
important  and  is  approximately  four  fifths  of 
Russia's  total  production.  This  is  because  of  the 
fact  that  during  much  of  the  time  of  the  low  tem- 
peratures which  occur  in  winter  over  a  great  deal 
of  the  region,  the  ground  is  not  protected  by  a  snow 
cover.  These  conditions  are  naturally  unfavor- 
able for  winter  varieties. 

Russian  wheats  are  of  good  milling  qualities 
and  are  much  in  demand  in  European  markets 
for  flour  purposes. 

The  Extent  of  Wheat  Production  in  This  Region. 

-  Because  of  the  crude  farming  methods  and  the 

lack   of  intensive   agriculture,   the   yield   is   very 

moderate.     During  the  years    1908   to    1912   the 

average  yield  reported  varied  from  9  to  1 1  bushels 


WHEAT  IN  EUROPE  307 

per  acre.  Nevertheless  on  account  of  the  large 
acreage  the  total  production  is  high.  In  1912  it 
amounted  to  about  624,000,000  bushels.  Among 
the  countries  of  the  world  Russia  ranks  second 
only  to  the  United  States.  With  the  opening  of 
wheat  territory  which  now  lies  unused  and  the 
introduction  of  modern  farming  methods,  Russia 
is  in  position  to  make  a  strong  bid  for  the  first 
place  in  wheat  production. 

The  Marketing  of  Wheat  in  This  Region.  —  Al- 
though many  elevators  have  been  built  during 
recent  years  to  facilitate  the  handling  of  grain, 
the  greater  part  of  the  wheat  is  still  marketed  in 
sacks.  Canals  and  railways  furnish  fairly  good 
market  facilities.  Nearly  one  half  of  the  freight 
tonnage  carried  by  the  railroads  consists  of  wheat 
or  wheat  products,  and  even  then  over  20  per  cent 
of  the  grain  is  carried  on  waterways.  This  empha- 
sizes the  fact  that  wheat  is  Russia's  greatest  com- 
mercial asset. 

In  exports  Russia  takes  high  rank.  In  1911 
more  than  150,000,000  bushels  of  wheat  were  sent 
to  other  countries.  This  is  nearly  twice  as  much 
as  was  exported  by  the  United  States  in  the  same 
year.  The  yield  varies  so  much  with  different 
years  that  comparisons  are  difficult,  but  Russia 
is  always  one  of  the  world's  greatest  exporters. 
The  chief  export  centers  are  Riga  and  Odessa. 
The  latter  is  now  said  to  be  the  greatest  wheat- 


308 


THE  WHEAT  INDUSTRY 


WHEAT  IN  EUROPE  309 

exporting  city  in  the  world.  Markets  are  found  in 
Italy  and  the  countries  ofwesternEurope.  Wheat 
is  sent  by  rail  to  Germany  and  by  way  of  the 
Mediterranean  to  Italy,  France,  and  Spain. 

Russia  has  thus  become  one  of  the  chief  factors 
in  the  production  of  the  world's  bread  supply ; 
and  the  crop  in  that  country,  because  of  its  great 
export  relations,  is  important  in  determining  the 
price  of  wheat  in  every  market  of  the  world. 

The  Wheat  Region  of  Austria-Hungary.  -  -  Posi- 
tion, Climate,  and  Soil.  -  -  The  greater  part  of 
Austria-Hungary  lies  between  the  45th  and  soth 
parallels.  A  narrow  strip,  however,  extends  south- 
ward along  the  Adriatic  Sea  to  latitude  42°  north. 

Moderate  temperatures  prevail,  though  great 
differences  exist  because  of  the  irregularity  of  the 
surface,  which  varies  from  low-lying  plains  to  high 
mountains.  In  general  the  summers  are  hot  and 
the  winters  rather  severe.  The  rainfall  ranges 
from  25  inches  per  year  in  the  southeastern  plains 
to  over  100  inches  annually  in  parts  of  the  Alps. 

The  plains  of  Hungary  constitute  the  most  im- 
portant wheat  region.  There  the  land  is  quite 
smooth  and  the  soil  well  adapted  to  wheat. 

The  Culture  Methods.  -  -  Both  spring  and  winter 
wheats  are  grown,  but  the  latter  because  of  the 
influence  of  climate  is  by  far  the  more  important. 

Intensive  farming  predominates.  The  rural 
population  is  dense  and  the  fields  are  small. 


3io 


THE  WHEAT  INDUSTRY 


WHEAT  IN  EUROPE  311 

Most  of  the  farms  are  less  than  45  acres  in  extent. 
Since  great  advances  have  been  made  in  providing 
machinery  suitable  for  the  small  fields,  hand  labor 
is  now  much  less  important  here  than  in  former 
times.  Small  harvesters  and  threshers  have  quite 
generally  replaced  the  cradle  and  the  flail.  In 
many  cases  several  farmers  unite  in  purchasing 
one  machine.  Exchange  of  machinery  is  also 
much  practiced.  By  such  methods  the  amount 
of  capital  invested  is  kept  low  and  still  labor- 
saving  machinery  is  placed  within  reach  of  the 
mass  of  the  people. 

The  Production  of  Wheat  in  This  Region.  —  Al- 
though the  total  amount  of  wheat  produced  in 
Austria  has  increased  over  75  per  cent  since  1880, 
the  product  ion  is  still  not  equal  to  the  home  demand. 
The  total  production  in  1912  was  257,347,000 
bushels  and  the  yield  per  acre  was  20.4  bushels. 
The  yield  in  the  wheat  centers  of  Austria  and 
Hungary  is  higher  than  the  figure  given,  but  the 
average  is  reduced  by  the  unfavorably  situated 
fields  of  hilly  and  mountainous  sections. 

The  wheat  is  of  exceptionally  high  milling 
quality.  This  is  a  result  of  the  hot,  dry  ripening 
season.  The  harvests  are  almost  free  from  rain 
so  that  the  grain  is  seldom  bleached  or  damaged 
by  moisture.  Flour  is  made  throughout  the  coun- 
try, and  many  small  flouring  mills  are  in  operation. 
Budapest,  however,  is  the  great  milling  center  of 


3i2  THE  WHEAT  INDUSTRY 

the  empire.  The  most  up-to-date  milling  machin- 
ery is  used  there  and  flour  of  the  highest  quality 
is  produced.  Austrian  flour  is  normally  in  great 
demand  in  English  markets. 

The  Balkan  States  Wheat  Region. — Although 
wheat  is  of  local  importance  in  all  the  countries 
of  the  Balkan  Peninsula,  Roumania,  Bulgaria, 
and  Serbia  are  the  only  ones  which  furnish  much 
wheat  for  export.  Greece,  Montenegro,  and  Al- 
bania not  only  do  not  produce  enough  for  home 
consumption,  but  must  even  import  in  order  to 
meet  their  needs. 

The  Roumanian  Field.  -  -  Roumania,  although 
called  a  Balkan  state,  is  really  a  continuation  of 
the  Russian  plain.  It  not  only  includes  part 
of  the  valley  of  the  Danube  river,  but  also  the 
greater  part  of  its  extensive  delta  region.  The 
wide  central  plain,  a  continuation  of  the  Black 
Earth  region  of  Russia,  has  a  warm,  rich  soil  and 
is  well  adapted  to  wheat  growing.  The  country 
is,  however,  one  of  extremes  of  climate.  It  has 
very  hot  summers,  with  temperatures  frequently 
rising  above  100°,  long  autumns  and  very  cold 
winters.  Winter  temperatures  often  drop  to  20° 
below  zero.  The  spring  season  is  very  short. 
Although  the  annual  rainfall  is  20  inches,  much 
of  it  comes  in  the  winter  as  heavy  snowfall.  The 
latter  part  of  the  summer  is  very  dry. 

Hard    wheats     are    raised.     Winter    varieties, 


WHEAT  IN  EUROPE  313 

among  which  is  the  well-known  Turkey  Red,  are 
most  profitable.  Occasionally  there  will  be  an 
open  winter  and  because  of  the  lack  of  snow  cover 
the  wheat  will  winterkill.  In  this  event  spring 
wheats  are  sown  as  early  as  the  season  permits. 

Here  the  plow  is  a  peculiar  machine.  Two 
wheels  are  in  front  and  the  wooden  plow  proper 
behind.  The  peasant  yokes  up  his  two  or  three 
pairs  of  oxen  with  the  old  fashioned  clumsy  wooden 
yoke  and  proceeds  to  the  field.  His  boy  acts  as 
the  driver  and  he  is  left  free  to  guide  the  plow. 
The  sowing  is  done  by  hand. 

June  is  the  harvest  month.  In  harvesting  the 
men  and  women  wield  the  simplest  kind  of  reaping 
hook  or  scythe  and  the  children,  following,  gather 
the  wheat  stalks  and  spread  them  on  the  field  to 
dry.  When  dry,  the  wheat  is  taken  to  the  stack 
or  barn  and  the  poor  people  who  wish  to  do  so  may 
come  and  pick  up  the  stray  stalks  that  are  left  in 
the  field.  These  people  are  known  as  gleaners. 

The  wheat,  with  the  heads  all  pointing  in  one 
direction,  is  spread  out  about  an  inch  thick  on  the 
floor  and  is  threshed  with  the  flail.  The  grain  so 
spread  is  called  haulm.  On  the  larger  farms  the 
threshing  is  done  by  having  a  loaded  cart  pulled 
over  the  haulm  as  it  lies  on  the  floor.  Few  steam 
engines  are  in  use,  although  they  are  beginning  to 
be  introduced  in  some  places. 

Roumania    produces    between    75,000,000    and 


3i4  THE  WHEAT  INDUSTRY 

100,000,000  bushels  of  wheat  every  year.  Since 
she  sends  out  nearly  three  fourths  of  the  wheat  she 
produces,  her  exports  are  important.  In  1911 
they  were  nearly  as  large  as  those  of  Australia. 
Because  of  its  macaroni  qualities,  much  of  the 
wheat  is  sold  in  Italy.  The  data  given  illustrate 
the  importance  of  this  small  Balkan  country  in 
producing  the  world's  bread  supply. 

The  Bulgarian  Wheat  Fields.  —  Bulgaria  lies  in 
about  the  same  latitude  as  New  York.  Its  wheat- 
producing  area  covers  about  4300  square  miles 
and  the  northern  part  of  the  country  produces 
the  greater  part  of  the  crop.  This  area  consists 
chiefly  of  the  plains  which  lie  between  the  Balkan 
Mountains  and  the  Danube  River.  The  climate  is 
similar  to  that  of  Roumania,  except  for  a  some- 
what heavier  rainfall,  which  comes  largely  during 
the  spring  and  winter  months. 

The  cultural  methods,  though  still  crude  in  many 
places,  are  rapidly  becoming  modernized.  The 
average  size  of  fields  is  about  eighteen  acres. 
When  the  country  was  under  the  direct  control 
of  Turkey,  the  people  were  kept  ignorant  and 
superstitious,  and,  consequently,  they  would  not 
use  machinery.  Since  the  country  has  become 
independent  of  Turkey,  the  native  rulers  have 
worked  hard  to  introduce  modern  methods  in 
farming  operations. 

Winter  wheats  are  the  principal  varieties  and 


WHEAT  IN  EUROPE  315 

the  harvest  season  comes  in  the  latter  part  of 
June  and  early  July. 

The  total  production  is  nearly  50,000,000  bushels 
annually,  of  which  about  one-third  is  exported. 
Much  of  this  wheat  is  shipped  by  way  of  the  Black 
Sea  and  the  Bosphorus  to  Greece  and  Italy. 
Some  of  it  goes  to  the  countries  of  western  Europe. 

The  Serbian  Wheat  Fields.  -  -  The  climate  of 
Serbia  favors  wheat.  The  winters  are  moderate, 
the  spring  season  is  moist  and  cool,  and  the  summer 
is  quite  warm  and  dry.  Only  about  one  third  of 
the  country,  however,  has  land  suitable  for  farm- 
ing. 

Almost  every  peasant  cultivates  his  own  field, 
which  consists  usually  of  from  10  to  30  acres. 
Because  of  the  primitive  methods  of  farming, 
modern  machinery  is  seldom  used.  Women  are 
taught  that  tilling  the  soil  is  as  truly  their  work 
as  is  housekeeping.  The  poorer  kinds  of  wheat, 
especially  spelt  and  emmer,  are  the  types  grown. 
Russian  wheats,  which  are  so  well  adapted  to 
Serbian  conditions,  have  been  slow  to  find  favor. 

In  spite  of  their  crude  methods  the  Serbians 
usually  export  from  three  to  four  million  bushels 
every  year.  Since  the  events  of  the  Balkan  War 
demonstrated  to  all  these  countries  the  advantage 
of  improved  methods,  not  only  in  war  but  in  in- 
dustry, it  is  probable  that  development  will  be 
more  rapid.  Lack  of  transportation  facilities  is 


3i6  THE  WHEAT  INDUSTRY 

here  a  handicap  to  export  trade.  Serbia  is  with- 
out navigable  streams  to  the  coast  and  her  rail- 
ways are  not  well  developed.  The  Mediterranean 
countries  are  her  chief  markets. 

The  Wheat  Region  of  Italy.  —  "  Sunny  Italy  "  is 
a  phrase  with  which  we  are  all  familiar.  This 
term  is  applied  because  the  country  as  a  whole  has 
a  very  large  percentage  of  days  of  sunshine.  The 
lack  of  cloudiness  is  illustrated  by  the  fact  that 
Italy  averages  three  hours  more  of  sunshine  every 
day  during  the  growing  season  than  does  eastern 
England.  The  rainfall,  which  varies  from  20  to 
40  inches  per  year,  comes  chiefly  in  the  winter 
and  spring  seasons.  In  fact  rain  is  so  closely 
associated  in  Italy  with  the  chilly  and  sunless 
season  that  the  average  Italian  is  inclined  to 
shudder  at  the  mere  mention  of  the  word.  The 
summers  are  warm  and  dry.  Because  of  the  lack 
of  summer  rains,  irrigation  is  extensively  developed 
in  agricultural  lands.  This  is  particularly  true 
along  the  coast  and  in  the  Po  valley. 

The  Methods  of  Cultivation.  -  -  Wheat,  which 
occupies  about  18  per  cent  of  the  cultivated  land,  is 
the  most  important  cereal  crop.  Fields  are  small, 
varying  in  size  from  two  or  three,  to  thirty  acres. 
The  latter  is  considered  a  large  field.  Although 
the  modern  plow,  harrow,  and  seeder  are  used  in 
some  places,  methods  of  tillage  generally  are  crude. 
The  sowing  is  for  the  most  part  done  by  hand. 


WHEAT  IN  EUROPE 


Spring  wheats,  macaroni,  and  spelts,  are  extensively 
grown,  and  the  harvest  season  comes  in  May  and 
early  June.  The  grain  is  cut  by  sickle  or  cradle, 
and  bound  by  hand.  The  flail  is  in  general  use 
for  threshing.  Harvesting  and  threshing  machin- 
ery are  of  late  coming  to  be  used  more  generally, 


FIG.  125.  — Wheat  harvest  in  Italy. 

but  because  of  the  small  fields  and  the  lack  of 
capital  among  the  peasants,  the  introduction  is 
slow.  Nearly  every  farmer  raises  wheat  for  his 
own  use,  and  has  some  to  sell  to  the  city  trade. 
Since  not  enough  wheat  is  grown  to  supply  the 
home  demand,  Italy  imports  each  year  from  thirty 
to  forty  million  bushels. 

The  average  yield  of  wheat  is  from  12  to  16 


3i8  THE  WHEAT  INDUSTRY 

bushels.  The  total  crop  in  1913  was  214,405,000 
bushels.  This  was  an  unusually  large  crop 
although  production  frequently  reaches  about 
190,000,000  bushels. 

The  Wheat  Products  and  Their  Uses.  -  -  The 
province  of  Tuscany  as  well  as  the  vicinity  of 
Milan  have  become  noted  as  straw-producing 
centers.  Here  wheat  is  grown  for  the  straw 
which  is  used  in  the  plaited  straw  industry,  now 
very  important  in  Milan,  Pisa,  and  Leghorn. 
The  straw-plaiting  is  a  domestic  and  rural  indus- 
try. The  girls,  over  20,000  of  them,  who  plait 
the  straw  also  tend  the  crop  during  its  planting 
and  growing  season.  The  making  of  hats  is  a 
factory  industry  which  centers  in  the  cities.  Ital- 
ian straw  has  a  market  the  world  over  for  its  use 
as  a  hat  material. 

Italy  is  the  native  land  of  the  macaroni  wheat, 
so  called  because  of  the  product  which  is  made 
from  it.  The  processes  of  manufacture  of  maca- 
roni differ  somewhat  from  those  of  ordinary  mill- 
ing. The  wheat  is  washed,  soaked,  and  then 
made  into  a  flour  called  semolina.  Semolina, 
which  is  much  coarser  than  common  wheat  flour, 
is  made  into  a  dough,  rolled,  cut  into  strips,  and 
then  dried.  These  dried  strips,  macaroni,  make 
a  very  nutritious  food  which,  because  of  its  cheap- 
ness as  well  as  its  nutritious  value,  has  served  to 
displace  meat  dishes  to  a  large  extent.  Not  only 


WHEAT  IN  EUROPE 


are  the  Italians  particularly  fond  of  macaroni,  but 
many  other  countries  also  use  it  extensively.  This 
widespread  use  has  developed  almost  entirely 
within  the  last  quarter  century,  for  the  macaroni 
industry  began  on  a  commercial  basis  in  Naples 
only  about  1875.  Macaroni  now  is  about  the 


FIG.    126. — An  Italian  bread  baking  oven.     Note  the  two  long  loaves  in  the 
foreground  ready  to  be  placed  in  the  oven. 

only  wheat  product  which  serves  as  an  article  of 
export. 

An  interesting  thing  in  connection  with  wheat 
products  here  is  an  Italian  method  of  bread 
making.  It  is  of  interest  chiefly  because  of  the 
large  loaves.  The  oven  is  often  a  little  stone 
building  which  is  used  only  for  baking  purposes. 
A  fire  is  kept  going  in  this  oven  until  the  stone 


320  THE  WHEAT  INDUSTRY 

walls  and  floor  are  thoroughly  heated.  The  coals 
and  ashes  are  then  removed  and  the  floor  is  care- 
fully wiped.  This  done,  the  loaves  are  placed 
inside  and  the  openings  are  sealed.  The  bread  is 
thus  baked  by  the  heat  stored  in  the  walls  and 
floor  of  the  oven.  The  loaves  are  large,  some- 
times six  feet  long,  eighteen  inches  wide,  and 
twelve  inches  high. 

The  ovens  and  loaves  just  described  are  common, 
although  the  smaller,  more  familiar,  sizes  are  also 
found. 

The  transportation  facilities  are  good.  Devel- 
opment, however,  of  roads,  canals,  and  railroads 
has  been  along  lines  of  getting  wheat  to  the  people  ; 
that  is,  for  import  rather  than  for  export  purposes. 
The  great  import  centers  are  Genoa,  Rome, 
Naples,  and  Venice.  As  has  been  previously 
stated,  Italy  imports  considerable  quantities  of 
wheat  which  serves  as  the  raw  material  for  the 
manufacture  of  macaroni.  This  is  then  exported 
as  a  finished  article  of  commerce. 

The  Wheat  Region  of  Spain.  -  -  The  Iberian 
peninsula  has  a  climate  of  extremes.  The  fringe 
of  mountains  around  the  coast  condenses  the 
moisture  borne  by  the  winds  from  the  sea  and 
gives  the  coastal  provinces,  especially  in  the  north 
and  west,  an  abundant  rainfall,  often  more  than 
60  inches  per  year.  The  interior  on  the  contrary 
is  quite  dry.  The  average  annual  rainfall  of  the 


WHEAT  IN  EUROPE 


321 


interior  plateau  of  Spain  is  only  12  to  20  inches, 
with  the  greater  part  of  this  coming  in  the  winter. 

Wheat  is  grown  in  all  parts  of  Spain.  The 
region  of  greatest  production,  however,  lies  north 
of  Madrid.  In  the  drier  parts  of  interior  Spain, 
the  small  spelt  is 
grown  because  it 
can  be  produced 
on  poor  soils  and 
is  more  drought- 
resistant  than 
other  wheats.  It 
grows  only  to  a 
height  of  from 
1 8  to  24  inches, 
has  but  one  seed 
in  a  spikelet,  and 
gives  a  small 
yield.  In  the 
more  important 
wheat  sections, 
Polish  wheat  or 
flint  wheat  is 
raised.  This  de- 
velops a  larger  plant  but  is  likewise  not  a  heavy 
yielder. 

The  Culture  Methods.  —  Hand  methods  of  tillage 
are  used  in  most  parts  of  the  country.  Wooden 
plows  drawn  by  oxen  are  used  to  turn  the  soil ; 


Copyright  by  Underwood  and  Underwood. 
FIG.  127. — Harvesting  wheat  in  Northern  Spain. 


322 


THE  WHEAT  INDUSTRY 


sickle  and  scythe  are  the  harvesting  machines  ; 
and  horses  and  goats  are  used  to  tramp  the  wheat 
kernel  from  the  straw.  The  wagons  are  fitted 
with  clumsy  wooden  wheels,  and  the  roads  are 
poor.  June  is  the  month  of  harvest. 


Copyright  by  Underwood  and  Underwood. 
FIG.  128.  — A  clumsy  cart  used  for  hauling  grain  in  Spain. 

On  the  plateau  much  land  lies  unused.  The 
inhabitants  lack  enterprise  both  in  tillage  methods 
and  in  bringing  available  land  under  cultivation. 
Agricultural  resources  are  neglected  by  the  Span- 
iards because  of  want  of  capital,  difficulty  of 


WHEAT  IN  EUROPE  323 

communication,  and  heavy  taxation.  The  last 
has  fallen  with  such  great  weight  on  the  farmers 
that  the  actual  tillers  of  the  soil  live  in  poverty. 

The  annual  production  is  about  one  seventh  of 
that  of  the  United  States.  The  average  yield  per 
acre  is  from  10  to  14  bushels.  Except  in  unusually 
good  years,  wheat  must  be  imported  to  meet  the 
home  demands. 

Marketing  the  Crop. --The  methods  of  market- 
ing are  poor.  Farmers  raise  just  enough  for  the 
community  and  this  is  then  ground  at  the  town 
mill.  Wheat  here  is  all  handled  in  bags.  Pack 
mules  and  ox  carts  are  still  common  and  means  of 
communication  are  generally  primitive.  Although 
railway  development  has  proceeded  with  some 
rapidity  during  recent  years  many  sections  are 
still  very  poorly  served. 

The  Wheat  Region  of  France.  —  Position  and 
Climate.  -  -  France,  whose  area  is  about  four  fifths 
that  of  Texas,  lies  in  the  same  latitude  as  north- 
ern United  States  and  southern  Canada.  Since 
it  is  so  situated  that  the  Atlantic  winds  have  free 
access  almost  everywhere,  the  country  has  an 
equable  climate.  Winters  are  moderately  cold,  and 
summers  are  mild.  The  rainfall  averages  about 
30  inches  per  year. 

Culture  Methods. — Among  European  countries, 
France  is  second  only  to  Russia  in  total  produc- 
tion. Although  only  one  eighth  of  its  area  is 


324 


THE  WHEAT   INDUSTRY 


WHEAT  IN  EUROPE 


325 


planted  to  wheat  she  produces  nearly  enough  for 
her  own  use,  importing  ordinarily  only  from  2  to 
10  per  cent  of  her  needs.  The  soil  is  generally 
fertile.  Where  it  is  poor  it  is  brought  up  to  good 
producing  capacity  by  the  use  of  fertilizers  and 


FIG.  130.  —  Threshing  wheat  in  Brittany,  France. 

advanced  methods  of  farming.  Small  fields  and 
careful  tillage  is  the  rule.  Women  do  much. of 
the  work  in  the  fields  of  France. 

Walking  plows  pulled  by  one  or  two  horses  or  a 
yoke  of  oxen  is  the  usual  means  of  plowing,  and 


326 


THE  WHEAT  INDUSTRY 


WHEAT  IN  EUROPE  327 

hand  sowing  is  customary.  The  harvest,  which 
is  now  largely  accomplished  by  machinery,  occurs 
in  July.  Only  where  fields  are  very  small  or 
hilly  is  the  sickle  or  scythe  used.  Most  of  the 
wheat  is  cut  with  small  binders  which  are  similar 
to  the  larger  ones  used  in  the  United  States.  The 
threshing  is  done  with  small  machines  operated  by 
horse  power.  The  threshers  are  fed  by  hand  and 
the  straw  is  removed  by  the  same  means.  These 
machines,  however,  do  good  work  and  are  efficient 
for  small  farms. 

Production  and  Uses.  -  -  The  yield  is  high,  aver- 
aging for  the  whole  country  from  1 8  to  20  bushels 
per  acre.  The  French  Government  takes  an 
active  part  in  encouraging  all  forms  of  agriculture 
and  gives  much  attention  to  the  solution  of  wheat 
problems. 

Both  spring  and  winter  varieties  are  raised. 
Because  of  its  high  yields  Durum  wheat  is  becom- 
ing more  and  more  popular.  The  macaroni  in- 
dustry has  here  also  grown  by  leaps  and  bounds 
in  the  past  few  years.  It  seems  as  though  the 
French  are  likely  to  become  worthy  rivals  of  the 
Italians  as  macaroni  eaters. 

Marketing  the  Crop.  -  -  France  is  noted  for  her 
splendid  public  roads,  the  >>(  routes  nationales," 
which  are  built  and  maintained  by  the  state.  The 
river  and  canal  routes  likewise  permeate  the  en- 
tire country,  and  France  has  a  highly  developed 


328  THE  WHEAT  INDUSTRY 

system  of  railways.  The  efficient  means  of  trans- 
portation together  with  the  many  large  cities  give 
all  the  agricultural  sections  easy  access  to  good 
markets.  The  wheat  is  generally  sold  to  local 
elevators  and  mills.  There  it  is  prepared  into 
flour  and  other  food  products  for  home  consump- 
tion. Although  wheat  importation  is  necessary 
to  meet  the  demands  for  flour,  imports  of  wheat 
are  ordinarily  kept  down  by  a  fairly  heavy  duty. 
This  is  for  the  purpose  of  encouraging  as  large 
home  production  as  possible. 

Wheat  Imports.  —  Russia,  Argentina,  and  the 
United  States  furnish  most  of  the  imports,  though 
some  come  from  the  Balkan  States,  India,  and 
Canada.  Marseilles,  Bordeaux,  and  Havre  are 
the  greatest  import  centers.  Very  little  wheat 
flour  is  imported.  This  arises  from  the  fact  that 
home  milling  is  strongly  favored. 

The  Wheat  Region  of  Germany. — Although 
in  the  northeastern  part  the  winters  are  cold,  the 
climate  of  Germany  on  the  whole  is  mild.  The 
rainfall  ranges  from  16  inches  in  the  middle  Rhine 
basin  to  more  than  30  inches  in  the  southern 
highlands  and  along  the  North  Sea.  The  rain, 
though  not  limited  to  any  season,  comes  for  the 
most  part  during  the  summer. 

Culture  Methods.  -  -  The  wheat  acreage  in  Ger- 
many is  only  a  little  more  than  one  fourth  that  of 
France.  This  is  due  to  the  fact  that  rye  and 


WHEAT  IN  EUROPE  329 

barley  are  used  as  the  bread  cereals  much  more 
extensively  than  is  wheat.  In  fact  the  Germans 
are  noted  as  "  black  bread  "  eaters,  although  in 
recent  years  wheat  bread  has  been  gaining  in 
favor  rapidly.  The  principal  wheat  regions  are 
in  the  southern  and  western  parts  of  the  country. 

German  farms  are  small  but  every  foot  of  ground 
is  made  to  yield  as  much  as  possible.  Intensive 
farming,  rotation  of  crops,  and  the  extensive  use 
of  fertilizers  have  built  up  the  German  farm  to  a 
high  point  of  efficiency.  They  are  now  being 
referred  to  even  in  the  United  States  as  examples  of 
what  can  be  accomplished  by  modern  agriculture. 

Small  machinery  is  used  almost  entirely.  Meas- 
ured by  the  standards  of  the  machinery  used  on 
the  large  fields  of  the  United  States  or  Canada, 
one  might  be  tempted  to  say  that  the  Germans 
are  not  up-to-date.  This  assertion  would  not  be 
true ;  for  their  machinery  is  well  adapted  to  the 
sizes  of  their  fields.  In  acreage-  the  farms  range 
from  two  to  thirty  acres,  the  latter  representing 
a  large  field.  As  in  France,  the  work  is  generally 
done  with  small  plows,  harvesters,  and  threshers. 
In  some  places,  though,  the  cradle  and  flail  are 
still  in  use. 

The  total  production  in  1913  was  171,075,000 
bushels,  representing  an  average  yield  of  more 
than  35  bushels  per  acre.  Although  German 
wheat  is  softer  than  most  of  the  American  wheat, 


330  THE  WHEAT  INDUSTRY 

it  is  of  good  milling  quality.  Much  spelt  and 
emmer  are  grown. 

Marketing  the  Crop.  —  Germany,  like  France,  has 
highly  developed  transportation  facilities  in  its 
excellent  wagon  roads,  canals,  and  railways.  The 
numerous  large  cities  demand  more  wheat  than 
the  country  produces,  so  prices  are  good  and  mar- 
kets easily  accessible.  Most  of  the  wheat  is 
handled  in  sacks  and  sold  to  local  mills. 

Wheat  Imports. — As  a  world's  wheat  market, 
Germany  is  especially  important  since,  with  the 
exception  of  Great  Britain,  she  imports  more 
than  any  other  country.  Her  imports  equal  50 
to  60  per  cent  of  her  own  total  production.  Great 
quantities  of  wheat  grown  in  the  United  States 
thus  find  markets  in  German  cities.  For  this 
wheat  Hamburg  and  Bremen  are  the  greatest 
import  centers.  A  great  deal  of  wheat  is  also 
bought  from  Russia,  much  of  which  is  shipped  by 
rail.  But  a  very  small  percentage  of  the  wheat 
imported  is  in  the  form  of  flour.  The  Germans 
prefer  to  do  their  own  milling. 

The  Wheat  Region  of  the  United  Kingdom  of 
Great  Britain  and  Ireland.  -  -  The  United  King- 
dom lies  in  about  the  same  latitude  as  Manitoba, 
Canada.  Because  of  its  insular  location  in  the 
belt  of  prevailing  westerly  winds,  the  climate  is 
mild  and  equable.  The  winters  are  rainy  and 
chilly,  and  the  summers  warm  but  not  hot. 


WHEAT  IN  EUROPE  331 

Although  small  quantities  of  wheat  are  raised 
in  Scotland,  Wales,  and  Ireland,  the  eastern  part 
of  England  is  the  chief  producing  section.  The 
annual  rainfall  in  the  principal  wheat  section  is 
about  30  inches,  and  it  is  fairly  well  distributed 
through  the  year.  It  is  lowest  in  the  summer 
months. 


Photo  by  H.J .  Young. 


FIG.  132. — Wheat  plots  at  Rothamsted  Experiment  Station,  Harpenden, 
England.  Both  plots  have  been  continously  cropped  with  wheat  for  seventy-one 
years.  The  plot  at  the  right  has  received  no  fertilizer  and  gives  now  a  yield  of 
about  thirteen  bushels  per  acre.  The  left  plot  has  had  annual  applications 
of  fertilizer  and  now  yields  about  forty-one  bushels  per  acre. 

Culture  Methods.  -  -  Both  spring  and  winter 
wheats  are  grown,  of  which  the  soft  white  varieties 
are  the  most  common.  The  English  wheats  be- 
cause of  the  warm,  moist  climate  are  on  the  whole 
more  starchy  than  those  of  the  United  States. 
Wheat  may  be  sown  in  any  of  nine  months  of  the 
year.  The  best  results  are  obtained  when  the 


332  THE  WHEAT  INDUSTRY 

land  has  been  summer  fallowed  the  season  before 
planting.  The  land  is  plowed  in  August,  allowed 
to  stand  about  two  weeks  in  order  that  the  herbage 
may  die,  and  is  then  cross  plowed.  Later  it  is 
harrowed,  packed,  and  thus  made  ready  for  seeding. 
Winter  wheats  are  sown  in  early  autumn, 


Pho^o  by  H.  J.  Young. 

FIG.    133. —  A   small  wheat    field   at    the    Harper    Adams   Agricultural    School, 
England.     Large  yields  reward  careful  and  intelligent  methods  of  production. 

usually  in  September,  although  sometimes  as  late 
as  December.  Spring  wheats  are  sown  from 
January  to  March.  The  press  drill  is  the  common 
means  of  seeding,  although  broadcast  sowing  is 
still  practiced  in  some  districts.  From  one  and 
one  half  to  three  bushels  of  seed  are  sown  per  acre. 
Harvesting  the  Crop.  —  August  is  the  general 
harvest  month.  The  methods  of  harvesting  vary 


WHEAT  IN  EUROPE  333 

from  cradle  to  binder.  Up-to-date  machinery  is, 
however,  the  rule.  Most  of  the  wheat  is  stacked, 
sometimes  in  barns,  often  out  of  doors  on  raised 
stack  stools  which  prevent  the  stack  bottoms 
from  molding.  Except  in  isolated  regions  where 
the  flail  is  still  employed,  the  modern  thresher  is 
used^ 

The  total  annual  production  is  about  60,000,000 
bushels  with  an  average  yield  of  a  little  more  than 
30  bushels  per  acre.  On  the  well  cared  for  fields 
of  eastern  England,  yields  of  60  bushels  per  acre 
are  by  no  means  uncommon. 

Transportation  facilities  are  excellent.  The 
country  roads  are  as  well  kept  as  are  many  of  the 
boulevards  which  lead  to  American  cities.  Rail- 
ways ramify  every  part  of  the  region  and  thus 
place  the  producer  within  easy  access  of  the 
greatest  wheat  markets  of  the  world. 

The  Wheat  Markets  of  Great  Britain. —  Since 
Great  Britain  consumes  much  more  wheat  than  she 
raises,  the  markets  are  largely  local.  There  is  no 
need  of  such  an  extensive  system  of  marketing  as 
is  in  operation  in  the  United  States. 

In  spite  of  a  comparatively  large  production, 
Great  Britain  imports  about  180,000,000  bushels 
of  wheat  annually.  For  import  purposes  her 
location  is  splendid,  for  she  is  within  easy  reach  of 
the  great  wheat  fields  of  the  world.  She  strives  to 
obtain  her  necessary  imports  as  largely  as  possible 


334 


THE  WHEAT  INDUSTRY 


WHEAT  IN  EUROPE  335 

from  her  own  colonies,  India,  Australia,  and 
Canada,  but  she  also  buys  large  quantities  of 
wheat  every  year  from  Argentina,  Russia,  and 
the  United  States. 

Great  Britain  is  dependent  upon  other  countries 
not  only  for  much  of  her  food  supply,  but  also  for 
her  raw  materials  for  manufacture.  Her  indus- 
tries consist  chiefly  of  converting  raw  materials 
into  finished  articles  of  commerce.  In  order  to 
insure  a  supply  of  the  necessary  materials  and 
foodstuffs,  she  has  developed  shipping  interests 
that  outrank  those  of  any  other  nation.  English 
ships  are  found  on  every  sea.  Her  merchant 
vessels  serve  to  bring  her  foods  and  raw  materials 
and  to  carry  her  manufactured  goods  to  foreign 
markets.  To  protect  her  commercial  interests  as 
well  as  her  colonies  she  has  built  and  now  main- 
tains the  world's  greatest  navy. 

Because  of  the  large  imports  of  wheat  needed  by 
Great  Britain,  she  plays  a  very  important  part  in 
the  world's  market.  Her  greatest  import  center 
is  Liverpool,  which  has  developed  into  the  first 
wheat  market  of  the  world.  The  crop  reports  of 
every  wheat  country  of  any  importance  are  wired 
daily  to  this  city.  These  reports  affect  the  Liver- 
pool market,  and  that  in  turn  controls  the  price  of 
wheat  the  world  over. 

In  conclusion,  we  need  only  to  be  reminded 
that  we  began  our  study  of  the  world's  wheat  crop 


336  THE  WHEAT  INDUSTRY 

where  acres  are  many  and  people  few ;  we  close  it 
with  the  country  where  acres  are  few  and  people 
many.  Production  and  markets  are  both  neces- 
sary and  the  interplaying  movements  between 
these  factors  are  well  illustrated  with  wheat,  the 
greatest  bread  cereal. 

QUESTIONS  AND  EXERCISES 

1.  In  what  European  countries  is  wheat  of  great  com- 
mercial  importance  ?     Why   are   not   all   countries   named  ? 

2.  What  part  of  European  Russia  is  important  in  wheat 
production  ? 

3.  Why  is  spring  wheat  of  greater  importance  in  Russia 
than  is  winter  wheat  ? 

4.  Of  what  importance  is  the  wheat  crop  of  Russia  in 
affecting  the  world  market  ?     Why  ? 

5.  Suggest  reasons  why  the  average  yield  per  acre  of 
wheat  is  higher  in  Austria-Hungary  than  in  Russia. 

6.  What   conditions    have   led    to   the   development  of 
Austria-Hungary  as  a  great  milling  country  ? 

7.  What    Balkan    countries    are    important    producers 
of  wheat  for  export  ? 

8.  What  causes  favor  the  production  of  macaroni  wheat 
in  the  Balkan  States  ?     Consider  both  climate  and  market 
conditions. 

9.  Why  do  small  fields  in  a  country  tend  to  retard  the 
introduction  of  modern  machinery  ? 

10.  Are    the    so-called    crude    methods    of    tillage    and 
harvesting  necessarily  uneconomical  ?     Do  they  necessarily 
indicate  lack  of  intelligence  among  the  people  using  such 
methods  ? 

11.  Suggest  reasons  for  the  development  of  the  macaroni 
industry  in  Italy. 


WHEAT  IN  EUROPE  337 

.     12.    Why  does  not  Spain  take  high  rank  as  a  wheat  pro- 
ducing country  ? 

13.  Compare  the  latitude  position  of  France  with  that 
of  the  United  States. 

14.  Discuss  the  adaptation  of  methods  of  production  to 
natural  agricultural  conditions  in  France. 

15.  What  is  the  attitude  of  the  French  government  to- 
ward agriculture  ?     Why  such  interest  ? 

16.  How  do  the  French  encourage  home  milling  of  wheat  ? 
Why? 

17.  What  are  the  chief  wheat  import  centers  of  France? 
What  countries  furnish  the  greater  part  of  the  wheat  im- 
ported ? 

1 8.  Briefly  discuss  the  methods  of  wheat  production  in 
Germany. 

19.  What  is  true  of  the  average  yield  per  acre  in  Germany  ? 
How  has  this  result  been  accomplished  ? 

20.  Of  what   importance   is   Germany   as    a   market   for 
American  wheat  ?     What  are  its  chief  import  cities  ? 

21.  Why  do  the  Germans  prefer  to  import  wheat  rather 
than  flour  ? 

22.  What   is   meant   by   the   insular   position   of  Great 
Britain  ? 

23.  What   is   the   greatest   wheat   importing   country   in 
the  world  ? 

24.  What  countries  furnish  the  greater  part  of  English 
wheat  imports  ? 

25.  From  the  standpoint  of  wheat  alone  what  reasons 
can  you  suggest  why  England  finds  it  necessary  to  maintain 
commercial  supremacy  on  the  sea  ? 

26.  In  a  brief  statement  explain  how  the  international 
trade  in  wheat  is  of  advantage  to  both  importing  and  ex- 
porting countries. 


INDEX 


Agronomy,  n. 
Aleurone  layers,  12. 
Alsop  Process,  161. 
Area  of  wheat  on  farms,  108. 
Argentina,  wheat  in  — 
Exportation,  225. 
Harvesting,  223. 
Location  and  extent,  216. 
Plowing,  221. 
Production,  225. 
Seeding,  222. 
Threshing,  223. 
Topography  and  climate,  217. 
Varieties,  218. 
Asia,  wheat  in  — 
British  India 

Culture  methods,  298. 
Exportation  and  routes,  300. 
Marketing,  299. 
Production,  299. 
Russia 

Central  Asiatic  Russia,  291. 
Transcaucasia,  293. 
Siberia,  288. 
Australia,  wheat  in  — 
Climate,  208. 
Exportation,  214. 
Location  and  extent,  207. 
Methods,  211! 
Production,  extent  of,  212. 
Transportation,  213. 


Austria-Hungary,  wheat  in  — 
Climate  and  soil,  309. 
Culture  Methods,  309. 
Production,  extent  of,  311. 

Balkan  States,  wheat  in  — 

Bulgaria,  314. 

Roumania,  312. 

Servia,  315. 
Beards,  9. 
Binder,  49. 
Biscuits,  1 86. 
Bleaching  flour,  161. 
Bonanza  farms,  no. 
Bread  baking,  184. 
Buhrstone  mills,  149. 
By-products,  163. 

Canada,  wheat  in  — 

Areas,  270. 

Exportation,  282. 

Harvesting,  275. 

Marketing,  278. 

Plowing  and  seeding,  274. 

Production,  amount  of,  281. 

Threshing,  277. 

Varieties,  272. 

Winnipeg,  279. 
Cellulose,  12. 
Cereal  foods,  174. 
Chess,  103. 


339 


340 


INDEX 


Chinch  bug,  40,  103. 
Cleaning  grain,  157. 
Club  wheat,  15. 
Coatings,  kernel,  II. 
Combines,  56. 
Common  wheat,  17. 
Cradle,  44,  196. 

Drills  - 

Hoe,  33. 

Press,  34. 
Durum  Wheat,  16. 

Einkorn,  15. 
Elevators,  130. 

Farm,  92. 

Terminal,  140. 

Town,  94. 

Embryo,  of  kernel,  n. 
Emmer,  15. 

Endosperm,  of  kernel,  n. 
Exchange,  wheat,  140. 
Exportation  of  wheat  from  U.  S., 
262. 

Fertilizers,  116. 
Flail,  66. 
Flours,  179-181. 
France,  wheat  in  — 

Climate,  323. 

Culture  methods,  323. 

Marketing,  327. 

Production,  extent  of,  327. 

Gang  plows,  23. 

Germ,  12. 

Germany,  wheat  in  — 

Culture  methods,  328. 

Importing  centers,  330. 

Marketing,  330. 
Glumes,  9. 
Grades  of  wheat,  127. 


Granary  storage,  91. 
Great  Britain  and  Ireland,  wheat 
in  — 

Climate,  330. 

Culture  methods,  331. 

Harvesting,  332. 

Liverpool  market,  335. 

Production,  extent  of,  333. 
Gristmills,  146. 

Handstone,  146. 
Harrow,  disk,  26. 
Harrowing,  28,  194. 
Harvests,  dates  of,  62. 
Header,  196. 
Header  Box,  54. 
Heading  out,  39. 
Heads,  on  wheat  plant,  9. 
Hessian  fly,  37,  39,  104. 

Irrigation,  102,  116. 
Italy,  wheat  in  — 

Culture  methods,  316. 

Macaroni,  manufacture  of,  318. 

Straw,  use  of,  3 18. 

Kickers,  151. 
Knotter,  the,  49. 

Leaves,  of  wheat  plant,  8. 

Lighters,  301. 

Liverpool,  market  of,  335. 

Macaroni,  172,  318. 
Marketing,  122. 
Master  wheel,  47. 
Milling  centers,  164. 
Milling  Processes  — 

Bolting,  155. 

Breaks,  154. 

Middlings  purifier,  151. 

Roller  mill,  152. 


INDEX 


Mortar  and  pestle,  147. 
Mustard,  wild,  103. 

Plowing,  192. 
Plows  — 

Disk,  24. 

Moldboard,  24. 

Share,  24. 

Sulky,  21. 

Wooden,  19. 
Polish  wheat,  16. 
Poulard  wheat,  16. 

Quern,  148. 

Railway  Transportation,  135. 

Reaper,  47. 

Reduction,  158. 

Roots,  6. 

Rotation  of  crops,  115. 

Russia,  wheat  in  — 

Climate  and  soil,  303. 

Culture  methods,  305. 

Kinds  of  wheat,  306. 

Marketing,  307. 

Production,  extent  of,  306. 

Sacked  wheat,  87. 
Seed  selection,  114. 
Self  binder,  199. 
Semolina,  173. 
Sheaves,  46,  52. 
Shocks,  46,  51. 
Sickle,  43,  47,  195. 
Smut,  105. 
Sowing  — 

Broadcasting,  31. 

Drilling,  31. 

Endgate  seeder,  32. 
Spaghetti,  174. 
Spain,  wheat,  321. 
Spelt,  15. 


Spikes,  5. 
Stacking,  57. 
Stems,  7. 
Stock  foods,  171. 
Stooling,  7. 
Straw,  use  of,  168. 
Sweat,  60,  78. 

Tempering  grain,  158. 
Thresher  — 

Band  cutter,  69. 

Blowers,  71. 

Self  feeder,  69. 

Shakers,  69. 

Stacker,  70. 
Threshing  floor,  67. 
Threshing,  history  of,  200. 
Threshing  out  of  shock,  56. 
Tillering,  7. 

United  States,  wheat  in  — 

Northeast  central  plains  re- 
gion, 241. 

Northwest  central  plains  re- 
gion, 252. 

Northeast  region,  231. 

Southeast  region,  236. 

Southwest  central  plains  re- 
gion, 246. 

Western  valleys  and  plains 
region,  256. 

Vermicelli,  174. 

Water  transportation  — 

Great  Lakes,  137. 

Mississippi  River,  138. 

Ocean  routes,  138. 
Winnowing,  68. 

Yields  of  wheat,  table  of,  113. 


T 


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Similar  in  treatment  and  scope  to  How  We  Are  Fed  is  How  We 
Are  Clothed.  The  chief  materials  and  processes  used  in  the  production 
of  clothing  are  treated  in  a  simple  and  interesting  manner.  By  constant 
suggestion  the  pupil  is  helped  further  to  discover  many  things  for 
himself. 

How  We  Are  Sheltered 

A  study  of  the  homes  of  men  in  various  nations  and  of  every  degree 
of  advancement  in  intelligence  and  civilization  is  here  given.  There  is 
also  much  of  interest  in  regard  to  the  building  materials  used  in  different 
countries  and  the  origin  and  preparation  of  many  of  the  things  which 
contribute  to  make  the  homes  of  mankind  comfortable  and  happy. 

How  We  Travel 

How  We  Travel,  the  concluding  book  of  the  series,  is  a  simple  pres- 
entation of  the  principal  means  of  travel  and  communication  in  use  at 
the  present  day,  with  such  account  of  their  beginning  and  development 
as  will  be  interesting  and  readily  intelligible  to  the  childish  reader. 


THE  MACMILLAN  COMPANY 

BOSTON  NEW  YORK  DALLAS 

CHICAGO  SAN  FRANCISCO  ATLANTA 


YE  64, 


U.C.  BERKELEY 


